GAS HYDRATE PRODUCTION TEST: FROM EXPERIMENTAL SIMULATION TO FIELD PRACTICE
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摘要: 天然气水合物研究的终极目标是对其进行有效的开发利用，即实现长期安全、高效地开采，而水合物试采只是迈出了第一步。数十年的室内水合物开采方法实验及其数值模拟研究取得了显著的成果，为天然气水合物试采奠定了坚实的基础。加拿大、美国等国家先后在陆地冻土区进行了水合物试采工作，试验成果为海域水合物试采提供了宝贵的经验。2013年和2017年，日本、中国先后在不同海域实施了天然气水合物试采，并取得了成功，这是天然气水合物研究的一个里程碑式的进步，标志着天然气水合物开采技术研究从室内实验模拟逐步转到产地实施。本文回顾了各种水合物开采方法的原理及其模拟实验成果，简要介绍了水合物开采数值模拟方法与进展，评述了水合物试采的前期关键技术准备及场地实施效果，讨论了每种技术方法的局限性及面临的挑战，并针对海洋天然气水合物开采面临的科学与技术问题提出了建议。Abstract: The eventual aim of gas hydrate research is to develop and utilize the hydrate resource effectively, that is to achieve long-term exploitation safely and efficiently. Gas hydrate production test is just the first step towards this destination. In the last several decades, great achievements for gas hydrate exploitation method studies have been made by laboratory experiments and numerical simulations, which have laid a solid foundation for gas hydrate production test. In the permafrost areas, the gas hydrate production tests were carried out by the US, Japan and Canada in the Mallik program at the Mackenzie Delta, and the U.S. in the North Slope of Alaska, respectively. The results provide some valuable experiences for gas production from marine gas hydrate. In 2013 and 2015, Japan and China carried out successfully the marine gas hydrate production tests in different sea areas respectively, suggesting landmark achievements in gas hydrate researches. It indicates that the study of gas hydrate exploitation technology has changed gradually from laboratory simulation to field practice. In this paper, we reviewed the principles and the experimental results for various gas hydrate exploitation methods, introduced briefly the numerical simulation methods and their progresses, discussed the key technology preparation required for gas hydrate production tests and the field practice effect. We also discussed the limitation and challenges faced by each method. Some advices were presented on the science and technology issues of gas production of marine gas hydrate resources.
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俯冲带是地球循环系统的重要组成部分。在俯冲过程中，俯冲板块沉入地幔深处，并因其板块弯曲，在板块上部产生拉伸应力，在板块下部产生挤压应力[1-4]。大量研究表明，俯冲带中由板块弯曲引起的正断层在上地幔蛇纹石化、板内地震、板块中的流体活动以及外缘隆起带断层引起的海啸中发挥着重要作用[5-6]。西太平洋处于4个板块交界之处，北为北美板块，西为欧亚板块，西南为菲律宾海板块，东南为太平洋板块。其中，北美板块和欧亚板块为大陆板块，菲律宾海板块和太平洋板块为大洋板块，两个大洋板块向两个大陆板块俯冲汇聚。西太平洋俯冲带是板块年龄最老、海沟最深和板块挠曲程度最大的俯冲系统。其洋盆发育了众多海山和海底高原，对海沟的几何形态产生了较大影响[7]。板块边界地震、火山活动活跃，西太平洋俯冲板块中的正断层地震通常发生在板块边界附近，因此可能构成巨大的海啸威胁。例如，1933年，日本海沟发生了8.4级地震，这是有记录以来最大的俯冲板块外缘隆起带（Outer rise）正断层地震，在日本三陆沿海地区引发了海啸[8]。2009年9月29日，汤加海沟发生8.1级外缘隆起带正断层地震，并引发了毁灭性的海啸[9]。因此，研究西太平洋俯冲板块正断层的动力学机制具有重要意义。
已观察到正断层在外缘隆起区到海沟轴部之间普遍存在。观测显示，与板块弯曲有关的正断层可能是板块俯冲过程中产生的新断层，或是在大洋中脊形成的重新激活的深海丘陵断层 [10]。前期地球动力学模拟研究表明，正断层开始在距离海沟轴部一定距离处形成，然后向海沟轴部方向生长[11-12]。海沟附近发育了丰富的挠曲正断层，这些断层除了会诱发板内地震之外，也是流体进入板块内部和俯冲带深部的主要通道[13]。西太平洋海沟的观测与模拟研究相对丰富，包括汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原和马里亚纳海沟等。这些俯冲带的构造特征变化很大，包括海沟深度、俯冲倾角、板块内和板块间地震活动，这使它们成为研究海沟动力学和板块相互作用的理想场所。本文综述了西太平洋俯冲板块弯曲与正断层的观测，并总结分析了正断层模拟研究揭示的正断层形成过程，这对进一步揭示俯冲带动力学机制有着十分重要的意义。
1. 西太平洋俯冲板块正断层特征
汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原和马里亚纳海沟均位于西太平洋（图1），且都是板块年龄相对较老（均超过100 Ma）的俯冲板块，因而远端的板块厚度可能相对较大，并且在4个海沟之间变化不大，因此可以直接比较各海沟的正断层特征，并揭示它们的共同特征。高分辨率海底多波束测深数据是从NOAA美国环境信息中心的多波束测深数据库（MBBDB）和海洋地球科学数据系统（MGDS）的全球多分辨率地形合成（图1）而成，网格平均分辨率约为100 m[14]。基于此数据，前人分别提取了汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原和马里亚纳海沟的14、9、15和15个垂直于海沟的剖面，以计算平均断层走向和密度，得到4个海沟的正断层特征（图2）。高分辨率多波束测深数据显示，正断层在4个海沟的俯冲板块上普遍存在。
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图 1 西太平洋俯冲系统的汤加海沟、日本海沟、伊豆-小笠原海沟和马里亚纳海沟Figure 1. Tonga Trench, Japan Trench, Izu-Bonin Trench, and Mariana Trench in the western Pacific subduction system![]()
图 2 汤加海沟、日本海沟、伊豆-小笠原海沟、马里亚纳海沟海底地形图a-d分别为汤加海沟、日本海沟、伊豆-小笠原海沟和马里亚纳海沟，白色线段为选取的断层剖面位置[15]。Figure 2. Seafloor bathymetry of the Tonga, Japan, Izu-Bonin, and Mariana Trenchesa-d: the Tonga Trench, Japan Trench, Izu-Bonin Trench, and Mariana Trench, respectively. White lines depict the deployment of transaction profiling[15].通过对比实际观测与弹塑性变形模型，前人研究了沿着汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原、马里亚纳海沟的板块挠曲与正断层特征（图2）。观测表明，平均海沟挠曲量在日本海沟最小（3 km），在马里亚纳海沟最大（4.9 km），而平均正断层垂直断距在日本海沟最小（113 m），汤加海沟最大（284 m）。而后模拟了俯冲板块在3种构造加载的作用下发生弯曲变形并产生正断层的过程，3种构造加载分别为：垂向加载（V0）、弯矩（M0）和水平拉张力（F0）。在板块挠曲与正断层特征的双重约束下，反演得到了4个海沟的最佳模型解。
汤加海沟的平均断层垂直断距最大，最大值为420 m，平均值为284 m（图3a）。伊豆-小笠原海沟和马里亚纳海沟的断层垂直断距相似，最大值均为320 m，平均值分别为238 m和148 m。在汤加海沟、日本海沟、伊豆-小笠原海沟和马里亚纳海沟，可识别的断层起始点距离海沟轴线分别为85、80、100 和115 km。
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据观测，马里亚纳海沟正断层密度最大，伊豆-小笠原海沟的正断层密度最小（图3b）。在马里亚纳海沟，从距海沟轴线 80 km处开始，断层密度开始明显增加，而其他海沟的断层密度则在距海沟轴部近 50 km处开始增加，表明在马里亚纳海沟，正断层带最宽，断层密度最大。
2. 西太平洋俯冲板块变形机制
观测到的海底地形受到各种组成部分的影响，包括沉积物厚度、板块冷却引起的沉降和艾里均衡补偿地形[16-18]，去除这些影响后，可得到非均衡地形，能够最大程度地反映板块弯曲变形的情况。以非均衡地形作为板块变形程度的观测，结合薄板弯曲理论模型，前人反演了4个海沟的最佳构造载荷。图4为西太平洋4个海沟俯冲板块的平滑弯曲形态。对于每个海沟，黑色细虚线表示单个剖面，红色粗曲线表示海沟的平均剖面。每个海沟截取的多条剖面上的最大变形量（W0）平均值用蓝点标记。远场参考海底深度用灰色线标记。红色箭头标记表示弯曲曲率降低到可忽略值（0.1×10−6 m−1）的特征距离（Xc）。
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图 4 汤加海沟、日本海沟、伊豆-小笠原海沟和马里亚纳海沟南北部的观测挠曲量及其平均值黑色虚线细曲线显示单个剖面，红色粗曲线显示沟槽的平均剖面，远场参考海底深度用灰色线标记。蓝点所在位置为多个海沟轴部最大变形量W0的平均值，红色箭头所指位置Xc为弯曲曲率可忽略值[19]。Figure 4. Observed flexures and their average values of the Tonga Trench, Japan Trench, Izu-Bonin Trench, and Mariana TrenchThe thin black dashed curves: the individual profiles; the thick red curves: the average profile of the trenches; the grey line: the far-field reference seafloor depth. W0: the average of the maximum deformation in the axial part of several trenches. Xc: the negligible value of the bending curvature[19].前人系统性地研究了西太平洋汤加-克马德克、马尼拉、菲律宾、日本以及马里亚纳海沟的俯冲板块变形研究并进行对比。图5a为海沟附近板块弯曲示意模型，显示预期的拉伸屈服变形区（红色网格纹）和压缩屈服变形区（蓝色网格纹）。图5b中X0是板块的宽度，也是垂直变形W=0的位置。在板块弯曲过程中，正断层发育的最大深度主要是由轴向垂直载荷（V0）控制，而正断层最大深度离海沟的距离是由轴向弯矩（M0）所控制的。西太平洋4个海沟板块变形对比研究表明，最大变形量（W0）和板块宽度（X0）主要由靠近海沟的由于断层作用降低的有效弹性厚度控制，并且几乎不受远端俯冲板块的初始有效弹性厚度的影响。板块有效弹性厚度的降低导致了海沟的显著加深和变窄，而板块的有效弹性厚度的变化与其年龄又存在着密不可分的联系[19]。通过汤加–克马德克海沟与马尼拉、日本、马里亚纳海沟等俯冲板片弯曲的分析对比（图5b），发现对于较年轻或较老板块的情况，无论海沟处加载量如何变化，板块的年龄都可能是控制海沟弯曲形状的主要因素（图5）。
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图 5 海沟板块附近弯曲的示意图模型(a)和汤加-克马德克、马尼拉、菲律宾、日本以及马里亚纳海沟俯冲板块年龄与板块弯曲参数的关系(b)X0为板块宽度，W0为最大变形量，V0和M0是弯曲参数[19]。Figure 5. Schematic modelling of buckling near the trench plate (a) and the relationship between subducting plate age and plate buckling parameters in the Tonga-Kermadec, Manila, Philippine, Japan, and Mariana Trench subducting plates (b)X0 is the slab width, W0 is the maximum deformation, and V0 and M0 are the bending parameters [19].3. 西太平洋俯冲带板块正断层模拟与含水量估算
西太平洋的俯冲带板块正断层的模拟研究中，俯冲板块在板块弯曲演变过程中的水平偏差应力能直接反映断层形态。根据最佳拟合模型得到4个海沟的俯冲板块的正断层模式（图6a-d）。根据计算，正断层发育在上塑性屈服破裂带内。
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图 6 汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原、马里亚纳海沟俯冲板块正断层特征以及板块有效弹性厚度变化、计算的水平偏应力和有效弹性板厚度a–d中黑色虚线表示伸展屈服带的最大深度，带误差条的黑圈显示了研究区域内可重新定位的外升正断层地震；e–h中是4个沟槽计算的Te（黑色曲线）和计算的面积SΔTe（白色区域）[15]。Figure 6. Normal faulting characteristics in the subducting plates of the Tonga, Japan, Izu-Bonin, and Mariana Trench and variations in the effective plate elastic thicknessThe black dashed lines in a-d indicate the maximum depth of the stretching yield zone, and the black circles with error bars show the relocatable outgoing uplift normal fault earthquakes in the study area; e-h are the calculated Te (black curves) and calculated area SΔTe (white areas) for the four trenches [15].结果显示，在日本海沟、伊豆-小笠原海沟和马里亚纳海沟中，大多数正断层都是向海沟方向倾斜的。但汤加海沟既有向海沟倾斜的断层，也有向海洋倾斜的断层。经计算，日本海沟和汤加海沟的正断层比伊豆-小笠原海沟和马里亚纳海沟的正断层浅。研究区域内现有的重定位正断层地震均位于计算出的拉伸屈服破裂带内（图6a-d）。黑色虚线曲线表示拉伸屈服带的最大深度。带误差条的黑圈显示了Emry和Wiens研究区域内可重新定位的正断层地震[20-24]。
在构造加载的作用下，俯冲板块在距离海沟100 km左右处的外缘隆起区开始产生正断层，逐步向海沟轴部发育，随着断层横向发育的过程中断层深度也逐渐增大，直至断层形态趋于稳定[16]。模型结果显示，日本海沟的水平张力分别比马里亚纳、汤加和伊豆-小笠原海沟小33%、50%和60%。汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原、马里亚纳海沟的正断层最深可达海底以下29、23、32和32 km（图6），这与重新定位后的日本与伊豆-小笠原地震深度一致。此外，反演得到的水平张拉力与观测到的平均垂直断距呈一定正相关性，而计算得到的有效弹性厚度减少量与观测到的海沟挠曲量也相关。这些结果表明，水平张拉力在正断层发展过程中起着关键控制作用，板块弱化可导致板块挠曲量的显著增加。
根据计算的水平偏应力，按照前人的方法[25-27]，计算了由于板块弯曲和正断层作用而产生的有效弹性板块厚度Te变化（图6e-h）。结果表明，有效板块厚度向海沟轴线逐渐减小，汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原和马里亚纳海沟的最大Te减少量分别为25、24、22和26 km。然后，通过对跨轴距离上的Te还原进行积分来计算Te还原的面积SΔTe。计算得出SΔTe的变化值中马里亚纳海沟最大，日本海沟最小。同时，计算得出Te还原区的宽度中日本海沟最大，其他3个海沟几乎相同。因此，日本海沟的平均Te减少量最小，马里亚纳海沟的减少量最大。
大多数利用薄板弯曲理论的研究已经认识到垂直载荷和弯矩的重要性，然而很少有研究调查水平张力（F0）的重要性。基于先前的研究表明，F0对于解释板块弯曲和断层垂直断距至关重要，特别是在控制最大断层断距离海沟轴部距离方面[28-30]。计算的F0与观测到的4个海沟的平均断层垂直断距呈正相关。这一结果表明，较大的F0有利于俯冲板块中较大正断层的发育。基于以上结果，可以推断F0在控制正断层模式中起着关键作用。由于研究存在局限性，即只研究了相对古老板块的俯冲带，因此想要证实这个结论还需要进一步的研究。
西太平洋俯冲板块因其年龄老、具有较高的刚度，形成的断裂分布广且断距大，进一步促进了流体进入地幔，并引起地幔蛇纹石化[31-32]。前人通过研究表明进入板块内地幔水化的范围和程度可以被用来估计带入俯冲带的水量[33-35]。汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原和马里亚纳海沟的累计断层长度（即单个可识别断层的总和）分别为240、260、360和450 km。并且通过对Cascadia海沟的地震反射研究，估算单个断层周围的透水断层带宽度为75～600 km，从而估计透水断层带的体积为18.0～144.0、19.5～156.0、27.0～216.0和34.0～270.0 km3，汤加、日本、伊豆-小笠原和马里亚纳海沟的地幔蛇纹石化百分比分别为0.4%～3.4%、0.4%～3.1%、0.6 %～5.1%和1.4%～10.8%。这一结果表明，马里亚纳海沟的地幔蛇纹石化程度可能明显大于其他3条海沟，相当于汤加和日本海沟的350%，伊豆-小笠原海沟的230%。
4. 结论与展望
（1）观测表明马里亚纳海沟、日本海沟、伊豆-小笠原海沟和汤加海沟都有显著的正断层特征，且汤加海沟的平均断层错距最大，马里亚纳海沟的正断层平均密度最大；（2）板块有效弹性厚度的降低导致了海沟的显著加深和变窄，并且无论海沟处的加载如何变化，板块的年龄都可能是控制海沟弯曲形状的主要因素；（3）屈服带模型揭示马里亚纳海沟的有效弹性厚度变化最多，导致其正断层特征更为明显，这也符合对正断层的观测。这些发现对于理解俯冲带的动力学过程具有重要意义。
当前的研究仍存在一定的局限性，包括：（1）地球动力学模型可能无法完全考虑实际地质过程中的所有复杂因素；（2）当前的俯冲板块弯曲动力学模型基本上都是二维模型，而实际的海沟走向并非直线而全部为曲线形态，因而亟需三维地球动力学模拟方法来解释观测到的板片弯曲和正断层形态；（3）很多海沟仍缺乏实测的高精度海底地形数据，限制了不同区域的对比研究。今后的研究应朝着以上方向去探索，以提高对西太平洋俯冲板块动力机制的更深理解。
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图 1 天然气水合物开采方法示意图[2]
(ΔP:降压法；ΔT：热激发法；ΔP+ ΔT：降压法+热激法；向左、上蓝色箭头：化学抑制剂注入法；绿色阴影部分：CO2置换法)
Figure 1. Schematic digram of commonly proposed gas recovery methods
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图 2 日本2013年试采井及监测井管柱设计示意图
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the wells design for Japan hydrate production test, 2013
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图 3 天然气水合物试采井筒流动安全评价技术
Figure 3. Flow assurance evaluation technologies for hydrate exploitatim wells
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图 4 历次水合物试采在天然气水合物资源金字塔中的位置示意图
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of previows hydrate exploitation tests and their positions in the hydrate pyramid
表 1 天然气水合物试采和出砂与防砂情况
Table 1 Overview of sand production and sand mamagement status during hydrate exploitation
试采井位 防砂方式 效果 加拿大Mallik 5L-38(2002) 防砂机械筛管防砂 有砂产出 加拿大Mallik 2L-38(2007) 射孔完井，未防砂 出砂造成ESP损坏 加拿大Mallik 2L-38(2008) 机械筛管防砂；泵入口加防砂网 有砂产出 美国阿拉斯加(2012) 机械筛管防砂 有砂产出 日本AT1-P(2013) 裸眼砾石充填防砂 出砂造成ESP损坏，试采终止 日本2017-001* 先期膨胀GeoForm筛管 防砂失败，井筒砂埋 日本2017-002* 井下膨胀GeoForm筛管 效果较好 *日本2017年海域天然气水合物试采两口井的具体站位数据目前暂未见报道，因此, 采用2017-001、2017-002代替。 
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表 2 历次天然气水合物试采产气量对比
Table 2 Comparison of gas productivity for previous hydrate exploitation tests
年份 所在区域 试采框体 储层类型 试采方法 生产持续时间 累产气量/m3 2002 加拿大麦肯齐三角洲 Mallik site 冻土区砂砾层 注热 5 days 516 2007 降压 12.5 hours 830 2007-2008 降压 139 hours 13 000 2007 阿拉斯加北坡 Mt. Elbert Well 降压 11 hours - 2012 IgnikSikumi CO2置换 6 weeks 24 085 2013 日本南海海槽 第二渥美海丘边缘 海洋中粗砂储层 降压 6 days 120 000 2017(01) 12 days 35 000 2017(02) 24 days 240 000 2017 中国南海北部 神狐海域 海洋黏土质粉砂储层 流体抽取法 60 days 309 000
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