Tripole on seafloor and tripole on Earth surface: Dynamic connections
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摘要: 地球地表环境3个极端分别为南极、北极和青藏高原，被誉为地表“三极”。本文提出深地动力系统的“三极”，分别为Tuzo、Jason和东南亚环形俯冲系统，这“三极”主体发育于海底之下的深部地幔，因此称为海底“三极”。地表“三极”和海底“三极”统称地圈“六极”，是全球变化（变暖或变冷）、深时地球、深地动力、地球系统、宜居地球等地球科学前沿研究领域难以回避的研究对象，是地球多圈层相互作用的6个纽带和突破口，也是寻求地球系统动力学机制的关键所在。Tuzo和Jason是现今分别位于大西洋、太平洋之下的大型横波低速异常区（LLSVP），它们控制了大火成岩省、微板块的形成和演化，也控制了集中式火山去气作用，进而引起大气循环变化；它们还不断衍生微板块，并将其向北驱散，这些微板块围绕东亚环形俯冲系统不断聚集，导致大量物质深俯冲，促进深部物质循环，同时，在岛弧地带释放大量温室气体，改变地表系统大气环流；板块聚散伴随海陆格局变迁，同时，也改变着全球海峡通道、高原隆升和垮塌，调节着地表流体系统的运行：包括海洋环流和大气环流。冰盖形成与演化也受其控制。海底“三极”也是地史时期超大陆聚散的根本控制因素，而地表系统的百万年内的多尺度周期性变化主要受公转偏心率、地轴斜率和岁差控制，气候变化受热带驱动和冰盖驱动双重控制。总之，尽管早期地球以后逐渐具有地球宜居性，但地圈-生物圈相互作用极其复杂，地圈“六极”研究可作为宜居地球研究的突破口和生长点。Abstract: The three extreme regions of the Earth’s surface environment, i.e. the Antarctica, Arctic and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, are known as the " three poles (tripole)” of the surface Earth system. In this paper, the concept of tripole of deep-Earth geodynamic system is proposed, which includes Tuzo, Jason and the Circum-East Asian subduction system. Since the principle parts of the deep-Earth tripole are developed mainly in the deep mantle beneath the seafloor, they are called hereby the seafloor tripole. The surface tripole and the deep tripole collectively consists of the " six poles” of the geosphere, which are the unavoidable research objects in the frontiers of geosciences, such as global change, deep-time Earth, deep-Earth geodynamics, Earth system and habitable Earth. They are the six links and breakthroughs in the multi-spherical interaction of the Earth as well as the key to search for the dynamic mechanism of the Earth system. Tuzo and Jason are Large Low Shear-wave Velocity Provinces (LLSVPs) located under the Atlantic and the Pacific, respectively. They control the formation and evolution of large igneous provinces and micro-plates, as well as centralized volcanic degassing which leads to the changes in atmospheric circulation. They also continuously cause the formation of micro-plates, push them moving northward, and constantly assemble them into the Circum-East Asian subduction system. A large amount of substances are subducted deeply to trigger the deep material circulation. Simultaneously, a large amount of greenhouse gases are released through island arcs, which changes the atmospheric circulation of the surface Earth system. Plate assembly and dispersion together will change the continent-ocean configuration patterns in addition to the global seaways, the uplift and collapse of the plateaus, and further regulate the operation of surface Earth fluid system, including both the ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation. The formation and evolution of ice sheets are also controlled by them. The " three poles” under the seafloor are indeed the fundamental controlling factors of the supercontinent convergence and dispersal in the geological history. The multi-scale periodic changes of the surface Earth system are mainly controlled by the eccentricity of the Earth around the Sun, the obliquity of the Earth axis and the precession. Climate change is driven by both tropical and ice-sheet driving forces. In a word, although the Earth is habitable after the Early Earth, the interaction between the geosphere and biosphere is extremely complex. The study of the geospheric " six poles” is doubtlessly the breakthrough and growth point for the study of habitable Earth.
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Keywords:
- seafloor /
- LLSVP /
- surface earth system /
- microplate /
- global change /
- Antarctica /
- Arctic /
- Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
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图 1 地表系统“三极”（北极、南极和青藏高原）示意
Figure 1. Tripole of surface earth system, i.e. the Arctic, Antarctic and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
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图 3 核-幔边界（2 800 km深度）SMEAN剪切波或横波异常（据文献[56, 57]）
图示了现今非洲(A，即Tuzo)和太平洋(P，即Jason)“超级地幔柱”位置和侧向变化。白色圈为201～15 Ma期间的大火成岩省位置[57]，大火成岩省名称字母缩略如下：C. CAMP; K. Karroo; A. Argo margin; SR. Shatsky Rise; MG. Magellan Rise; G. Gascoyne; PE. Parana-Etendeka; BB. Banbury Baslats; MP. Manihiki Plateau; O1. Ontong Java 1; R. Rajmahal Traps; SK. Southern Kerguelen; N. Nauru; CK. Central Kerguelen; HR. Hess Rise;W. Wallaby Plateau; BR. Broken Ridge; O2. Ontong Java 2; M. Madagascar; SL. S. Leone Rise; MR. Maud Rise; D. Deccan Traps; NA. North Atlantic; ET. Ethiopia; CR. Columbia River。红色点为Courtillot等(2003)认定的深起源热点[58]。地幔柱生成带位于两个LLSVPs的周缘[59]
Figure 3. SMEAN shear wave velocity anomalies near the core–mantle boundary (2 800 km depth) (after references [56, 57])
Fig.3 shows the position and lateral variation of the African superplume (A, Tuzo) and the Pacific superplume (P, Jason). LIPs reconstructed back through time (201～15 Ma) from their present locations to those in which they were erupted are shown as annotated white circles. LIPs of the past 200 My are: C. CAMP; K. Karroo; A. Argo margin; SR. Shatsky Rise; MG. Magellan Rise; G. Gascoyne; PE. Parana-Etendeka; BB. Banbury Baslats; MP. Manihiki Plateau; O1. Ontong Java 1; R. Rajmahal Traps; SK. Southern Kerguelen; N. Nauru; CK. Central Kerguelen; HR. Hess Rise;W. Wallaby Plateau; BR. Broken Ridge; O2. Ontong Java 2; M. Madagascar; SL. S. Leone Rise; MR. Maud Rise; D. Deccan Traps; NA. North Atlantic; ET. Ethiopia; CR. Columbia River. Hotspots argued to have a deep origin by Courtillot et al. (2003) are shown as red dots[58]. The Plume Generation Zones(PGZs) lie at the edges of the LLSVPs[59]
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图 4 板块净运动特征与下伏地幔流的关系（据文献[60]）
a和b为双极、四极和净拉伸参照系下现今地表板块运动的净极位置分布，在a中为黑色符号，在b中蓝色为板拉力相关的板块驱动力净极位置，红色为板底拖曳力。c. 为过大圆ABCD的地幔剖面，表示了层析揭示的剪切波速异常（也在图a中彩色表示了2 800 km深处）以及相关的地幔流场（绿色箭头）、表面板块运动（黑色箭头）及净双极和四极位置（黑色符号）
Figure 4. Association of plate tectonic net characteristics with those of underlaying mantle flow (after reference [60])
a and b net characteristic pole locations for the dipole, quadrupole and net stretching components of present-day surface plate motions (black symbols) in Fig. 4a and for plate tectonic driving forces associated with slab pull 29 (blue symbols) and basal tractions on plates (red symbols) in Fig.4b. c. A mantle cross-section cutting through great circle ABCD (drawn on maps in all panels) shows the tomographic shear velocity anomaly (colours, also drawn in map view in a at 2 800 km depth), the associated mantle flow field14 (green arrows), surface plate motion (black arrows), and net characteristic dipole and quadrupole locations for plate motions (black symbols)
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图 5 基于地幔流模式预测的2 677 km深处的地幔温度异常（a-c为模式1的预测，d-f为类模式2的预测）（据文献[53]）
棕色等值线为致密物质的50%集中区，绿色线条代表LLSVPs圈闭区，黑色线条为重建的现今海岸线位置，粉色线条标注的为华南，灰色线为俯冲带，箭头指向上盘。但由于这种重建是基于板块重建的地幔结构重构，因而板块重建不对，如图5d与Torsvik等（2008）的297 Ma的非常不同[61]，因此结果也仅只能作为参考。从重构结果可以看到的是，两个LLSVPs并不是对等的，强弱和结构会随着上部板块聚散行为、进入下地幔的板片行为的滞后效应而发生变化
Figure 5. Mantle temperature anomalies at 2 677 km in depth predicted by mantle flow models driven by Case 1 (a-c) and Case 2 (d-f) (after reference [53])
The brown contours indicate 50% concentration of dense material. The green contour represents LLSVPs. Reconstructed locations of present day coastlines are in black with the South China block show in magenta. Reconstructed subduction zone locations are shown as grey lines with triangles on the overriding plate. However, since this reconstruction is based on the reconstruction of the mantle structure of the plate reconstruction, the reconstruction of the plate is not correct, as shown in Fig.5d and Torsvik et al. (2008) 297 Ma is very different[61], so the results can only be used as a reference. It can be seen that the two LLSVPs are not equivalent, and the strength and weakness will change with the hysteresis effect of the plate slab behavior of the lower mantle
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图 6 中生代环太平洋及古太平洋内的板块运动学和大火成岩省重建（据文献[85]）
淡蓝色细线指重建的磁条带，黄绿色曲线圈定了太平洋下地幔低速区（LLSVP），洋中脊用浅蓝色粗线表示，磁线理用天蓝色细线表示。a. 168.2 Ma (M42) 太平洋板块初始形成，同时皮加费塔（Pigafetta）盆地 (PIG) 形成；b. 139.6 Ma (M16) 为太平洋下地幔低速区北北东部边缘的活动上涌时期，太平洋板块东北侧脊-柱相互作用触发了沙茨基海隆(SHA) 形成于大约144 Ma, 尼科亚I (NIC I) 海台和中太平洋海山群 (MPM) 形成于大约140 Ma，麦哲伦海隆 (MAG) 形成于大约135 Ma；c. 120.4 Ma (M0) 为一个新的活动上涌时期，太平洋板块南侧脊-柱相互作用激发了翁通爪哇海台(OJP)、马尼希基(MAN)和希库朗基海台(HIK) 形成事件。尼科亚II (NIC II) 海台也属于这次事件, 其喷发发生在太平洋下地幔低速区北部边缘脊-柱交接区。还是这次, 中太平洋海山群再次活跃，形成了几个具有OIB典型特征的次级水下海山。同时，太平洋下地幔低速区西缘附近的东马里亚纳海盆 (EMB)先后发生了127和120 Ma的板内岩浆脉冲事件；d. 112 Ma太平洋下地幔低速区南缘依然活动，并与洋中脊相互作用，形成了希库朗基海台、瑙鲁海盆(NAU)和东马里亚纳海盆；e. 95 Ma太平洋下地幔低速区最东缘变得活跃，在与洋中脊相互作用的地区形成了加勒比海台 (CAR)。板块名称缩写如下：BIS (Biscoe), CHS (Chonos), FAR (法拉隆), GUE (格雷罗), IZA (依泽奈崎), KUL (库拉), MAC (Mackinley), PAC (太平洋), PEN (Penas), PHO (菲尼克斯), WAK (Washikemba), WRA (Wrangellia)和YAK (Yakutat)
Figure 6. Plate reconstructions of plate kinematics and large igneous provinces for Mesozoic circum-Pacific and Paleo-Pacific plates(after reference [85])
‘M’ notations refer to established magnetic anomalies. The orange outline denotes the Pacific LLSVP. MORs are represented by thick light blue lines and magnetic anomalies in white thin lines. a. At 168.2 Ma (M42) the Pacific Plate was at its onset. Pigafetta Basin (PIG) was forming. b. At 139.6 Ma (M16) a period of active upwellings of the Pacific LLSVP at its N-NE margins triggered the formation of Shatsky Rise (SHA) at circa 144 Ma, Nicoya I (NIC I) plateau and Mid-Pacific Mountains (MPM) at circa 140 Ma and Magellan Rise (MAG) at circa 135 Ma. c. At 120.4 Ma (M0) a new period of mantle upwellings stimulated the formation the Ontong-Java (OJP), Manihiki (MAN) and Hikurangi (HIK) Plateau event. The Nicoya II (NIC II) plateau belongs to these series of upwellings, erupting close to the northern margins of the LLSVP. Also at this time, a rejuvenated stage occurred at the Mid-Pacific Mountains characterized by the formation of several sub-aerial seamounts with a clear OIB signature that were eroded and later subsided. Meanwhile, the East Mariana Basin (EMB), near the W margins of the Pacific LLSVP, presented an intraplate magmatic pulse at circa 127 Ma and 120 Ma, respectively. d. At 112 Ma the southern margin of the LLSVP remains active and in interaction with a MOR, forming sections of the Hikurangi Plateau, Nauru Basin (NAU) and East Mariana Basin. e. At 95 Ma the easternmost margins of the Pacific LLSVP became active forming the Caribbean Plateau (CAR) at the intersection of with a MOR. Tectonic plate abbreviations BIS (Biscoe), CHS (Chonos), FAR (Farallon), GUE (Guerrero), IZA (Izanagi), KUL (Kula), MAC (Mackinley), PAC (Pacific), PEN (Penas), PHO (Phoenix), WAK (Washikemba), WRA (Wrangellia) and YAK (Yakutat)
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图 8 850～0 Ma大陆与大洋的重组过程及其相应的海平面、花岗岩、冰期、海水中锶和碳同位素变化规律
a. 显生宙以来的海平面变化，A-Hallam (1992) [116]；B-Fischer(1984) [111]；b. 冰期（星号），冰室状态（空白），温室状态（G）；c. 海水中87Sr/86Sr；d. δ13Ccarb；e. 大陆和海洋的聚集和分离：AF:非洲，AMAZON:亚马逊，AN:南极洲，AUS:澳大利亚，BAL:波罗的海，EAF:东非地体，IND:印度(India)，KAZ:哈萨克斯坦，LAU:劳伦古陆，SIB:西伯利亚，SAM:南美，SF:旧金山，WAF:西非，AT:大西洋(北部-中部)，IO:印度洋(西-东-东南)。其中，没有显示的为基梅里地体群、华北、华南和特提斯[117]，碰撞拼合形成的超大陆A-泛大洋A由实心圆圈表示; 超大陆B-泛大洋B和冈瓦纳古陆则由空心圆表示。时间分别为720 ～690 Ma、600 ～580 Ma和570 Ma。南美-非洲地区的数据修改自文献[118]
Figure 8. The variations in sea level, granite, ice age, seawater Sr and C isotopes during re-organization of continents and oceans since 850 Ma
a. the variations of sea level since the Phanerozoic, A-Hallam (1992)[116]; B-Fischer (1984)[111]; b. Ice period (asterisk), ice chamber status (blank), greenhouse status (G); c. 87Sr/86Sr in seawater; d. δ13Ccarb; e. Continental and oceanic combinations: AF:Africa, AMAZON: Amazonas, AN:Antarctica, AUS:Australia, BAL:Baltica, EAF:East African terranes, IND:India, KAZ: Kazakhstania, LAU:Laurentia, SIB:Siberia, SAM:South America, SF:San Francisco, WA:West Africa, AT:Atlantic (north-central), IO:Indian(west-east-southeast). The Kimeri terrane group, North China, South China and Tethys[117] are not shown in this Figure, and the supercontinent A-Pan Ocean A formed by collision and formation is represented by a solid circle; Supercontinent B-Pan Ocean B and Gondwana The ancient land is represented by a hollow circle. The time is 720 ～690 Ma, 600 ～580 Ma and 570 Ma. Data for the South American-African region has been modified reference [118]
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