Preliminary study on Oligo-Miocene hydrological changes in Southeast Asia and their driving mechanisms
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摘要:
新生代印尼海道的启闭对印度-太平洋暖池演化和大气环流模式变迁有重大影响。然而，受限于构造和古环境重建资料的缺乏，这三者之间的逻辑关系和驱动机制还缺乏清晰的图景。本文梳理了孢粉记录、煤层沉积、浅海碳酸盐沉积和生物地理演化等方面的证据，提出东南亚水文气候在渐新世与中新世之交发生重大调整的认识，即从渐新世的相对干旱条件转型为贯穿整个中新世的持续湿润状态。结合最近的模拟研究，认为东南亚水文气候演变同时受到全球因素和区域构造要素的影响。渐新世与中新世之交和中中新世晚期至晚中新世早期，印尼海道的持续关闭可以通过限制太平洋-印度洋次表层水的交换，进而扩大太平洋一侧的温跃层深度以及经纬向的海表温度梯度，进一步增强沃克环流，最终可能促使东南亚在渐新世与中新世之交发生了干湿格局的转换，并抵消了中中新世晚期至晚中新世全球降温对区域水文气候的影响。目前的研究仍存在不确定性，未来亟需更多的地质记录和模拟研究来准确厘定海道关闭-暖池演化-大气环流之间的联系。
Abstract:The closure of the Indonesian Seaway played a key role in the evolution of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool and associated atmospheric circulation during the Cenozoic. However, the relationship between the closure of the seaway, the evolution of the warm pool, and the shift in atmospheric circulation remains unclear due to poor constraints in tectonic and paleoenvironmental reconstructions. This study reviews the historical literature, including evidence from pollen records, coal deposits, shallow marine carbonate deposits, and biogeographic evolution. The results show that the hydroclimate in Southeast Asia underwent significant changes during the Oligo-Miocene transition, shifting from relatively dry conditions in the Oligocene to persistently wet conditions throughout the Miocene. Combined with recent simulation studies, it was concluded that the hydrological changes in Southeast Asia were influenced by both global and regional factors. The narrowing and closure of the seaway may have increased the gradient between the east-west thermocline depth and the east-west sea surface temperature in the Pacific Ocean, limiting the exchange of subsurface water between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. This in turn led to a strengthening of the Walker Circulation, which subsequently induced hydrological changes in Southeast Asia after the Oligo-Miocene boundary and mitigated the effects of global cooling over the Late Miocene. Uncertainties remain in current studies, and more geological records and simulation studies in the future would help to accurately characterize the relationship between seaway closure, warm pool evolution, and atmospheric circulation in the Oligo–Miocene.
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图 1 印太暖池现代海流与本文研究所引用的站位资料
a：印太暖池分布范围及其表层洋流，其中橙色实线代表暖流，蓝色实线代表寒流，绿色实线代表季风淡水输入（修改自文献[37–38]）；b：东南亚代表性钻井孢粉剖面（黑色圆点, 修改自文献[39–43]）和主要含煤盆地分布（陆上褐色区域, 修改自文献[44–45]），华莱士生物区及其界限（白色虚线, 修改自文献[46]）。
Figure 1. Modern oceanography in the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool and sites cited in this study
a: Distribution of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool (black lines) and surface oceanic circulation in the region. Warm currents (orange lines), cold currents (blue lines), and monsoonal freshwater plumes (green lines) are presented (modified after references [37–38]); b: location of palynological profiles from representative wells (black dots, modified after references [39–43]) and main coal-bearing basins of Southeast Asia (brown patches on land, modified after references [44–45]), the Wallace’s zoogeographical region and its boundaries are denoted (white dashed lines, modified after reference [46]).
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图 2 全球气候变化和印尼海道构造演变
a：全球深海底栖有孔虫δ18O[30]；b：全球平均地表温度相对变化[31]；c：全球海平面相对变化[32]；d：大气CO2浓度[31]；e：基于TEX86重建的全球SST，红色代表中低纬度地区，蓝色代表高纬地区[33]；f：印尼海道构造演变重建（修改自文献[34,38]）。
Figure 2. Global climate change and tectonic evolution of the Indonesian Seaway
a: Global deep-sea benthic foraminiferal δ18O[30]; b: variation in global mean surface temperature relative to the present estimated from benthic δ18O[31]; c: variation of sea level relative to the present estimated from benthic δ18O[32]; d: atmospheric CO2 estimate[31]; e: global SST estimated from TEX86, where red line represents middle-low latitude region and blue line represents high latitude region[33]; f: tectonic reconstruction of the Indonesian Seaway (modified after references [34,38]).
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图 6 渐新世至中新世东南亚水文气候变化与浅海碳酸盐沉积发育情况对比
a：基于孢粉组合重建的水文气候变化，b：赤道不同碳酸盐生物相的相对面积，c：赤道不同碳酸盐生物相相对面积的相对比例，d：碳酸盐台地数量，e：碳酸盐浅滩和建隆数量，f：格架礁的发育情况（修改自文献[47,84]）。
Figure 6. Comparison of hydrological changes in the Oligocene to Miocene with the development of shallow-marine carbonate formations in Southeast Asia
a: Reconstructed hydrological changes based on palynological assemblages, b: the relative areas of equatorial carbonate of different carbonate biofacies, c: the relative proportion of the relative areas of equatorial carbonate to different carbonate biofacies, d: numbers of carbonate platforms, e: numbers of carbonate shoals/buildups, f: development of framework reefs(modified after Refs. [47,84]).
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图 7 渐新世至中新世东南亚与其他区域的水文气候对比
a：基于孢粉组合[84]和模拟[46]重建的东南亚水文气候变化；b：印尼海道演变历史[38,34]；c：全球深海底栖有孔虫δ18O[30]；d：全球平均地表温度相对变化[31]和海平面相对变化[32]；e：大气CO2浓度[31]；f：基于TEX86重建的全球SST，红色为中低纬地区，蓝色为高纬地区[33]；g：巴基斯坦大型食草哺乳动物牙釉质δ18O和δ13C[48]；h：亚洲内陆旱生植物占比，其中绿色散点为Ephedra + Nitraria + Chenopodiaceae + Artemisia之和[49,108]，橙色柱状为干草甸和沙漠景观植被占比之和[50]；i：非洲叶蜡烷烃δ13C[51–52]；j：全球晚中新世C4植被扩张开始时间[51]；k：澳大利亚西北部IODP U1464钾元素含量，大于0.3为湿润，小于0.2为干旱[53]。
Figure 7. Comparison of hydrological changes in the Oligocene to Miocene in Southeast Asia with other regions
a: Reconstructed hydrological changes based on the palynological assemblages[84]and model stimulation[46]; b: the evolution history of the Indonesian Seaway[38,34]; c: global deep-sea benthic foraminiferal δ18O[30]; d: global mean surface temperature[31] and sea level change[32] relative to the present estimated from benthic δ18O; e: atmospheric CO2 estimate[31]; f: global SST estimated from TEX86, where red line represents middle-low latitude region and blue line represents high latitude region[33]; g: δ18O and δ13C of tooth enamel bioapatite for large herbivorous mammal in Pakistan[48]; h: xerophytic vegetation changes in Central Asia, where green dots represent the sum of Ephedra + Nitraria + Chenopodiaceae + Artemisia[49,108], and orange bars represent the sum of steppe and desert vegetation[50]; i: compilation of δ13C for plant wax n-alkanes in Africa[51–52]; j: the onset of C4 vegetation expansion in the Late Miocene across the globe[51]; k: potassium content of the IODP U1464 located in the northwestern Australia, with wet and dry conditions being represented by >0.3 and <0.2, respectively[53].
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图 8 推测的早渐新世（a）和早中新世（b）的印尼海道、印太暖池和沃克环流关系示意图
Figure 8. Evolution phases and correlation among the Indonesian Seaway, Indo-Pacific Warm Pool, and Walker Circulation.
a: Early Oligocene, b: Early Miocene.
表 1 主要引用资料基本信息
Table 1 Basic information of main references cited for this study
站位名称 地点 替代性指标 气候指示意义 覆盖时间 地层方法 参考文献 Well C 东南亚越南南部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 24.2～28.2 Ma 生物地层 [42] Well E 东南亚越南南部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 20.9～23.4 Ma 生物地层 [42] Belut-3 东南亚马来半岛东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 33.7～34.8 Ma 生物地层 [39] Kambing-1 东南亚马来半岛东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 27.5～29.4 Ma 生物地层 [39] Kambing-1? 东南亚马来半岛东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 23.8～27.5 Ma 生物地层 [39] Kadal-1 东南亚马来半岛东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 21.2～23.8 Ma 生物地层 [39] Bergading Deep-3 东南亚马来半岛东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 7.7～16.9 Ma 生物地层 [43] Dengkis-1 东南亚婆罗洲北部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 6.6～14.2 Ma 生物地层 [43] Kuda Laut-1 东南亚婆罗洲北部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 3.5～23.1 Ma 生物地层 [43] Bukoh-1 东南亚婆罗洲北部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 20.2～28.2 Ma 生物地层 [43] Well A 东南亚婆罗洲东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 0～8.5 Ma 生物地层 [40] Well B 东南亚婆罗洲东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 0～9.4 Ma 生物地层 [40] Well X 东南亚爪哇海东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 23～30 Ma 生物地层 [41] Well Y 东南亚爪哇海东部 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 23～30 Ma 生物地层 [41] 东南亚 煤层分布 降雨强度干湿变化 新生代 [44–45] 东南亚 浅海碳酸盐生物相相对面积 降雨强度干湿变化 新生代 [47] 东南亚 浅海碳酸盐生物相面积相对占比 降雨强度干湿变化 新生代 [47] 东南亚 浅海碳酸盐台地数量 降雨强度干湿变化 新生代 [47] 东南亚 浅海碳酸盐浅滩/建隆数量 降雨强度干湿变化 新生代 [47] 东南亚 浅海碳酸盐格架礁分布 降雨强度干湿变化 新生代 [47] 东南亚 降水量数值模拟 降雨强度干湿变化 0～30 Ma [46] 巴基斯坦 食草动物牙釉质碳同位素 植被类型干湿变化 0～33 Ma [48] 巴基斯坦 食草动物牙釉质氧同位素 降雨强度干湿变化 0～33 Ma [48] 中国西北 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 0～45 Ma [49] 中国西北 孢粉组合相对丰度 植被类型干湿变化 0～39 Ma [50] 非洲东西沿海 有机质叶蜡烷烃碳同位素 植被类型干湿变化 0～23 Ma [51] 非洲埃塞俄比亚 有机质叶蜡烷烃碳同位素 植被类型干湿变化 渐新世-早中新世 [52] IODP U1464 澳大利亚西北 沉积物钾元素含量 降雨强度干湿变化 5～15 Ma 生物地层 [53] 全球 底栖有孔虫氧同位素 全球冰量底层海水温度 新生代 [30] 全球 底栖有孔虫氧同位素 全球平均温度 新生代 [31] 全球 多指标(例如浮游植物长链不饱和酮类
碳同位素、硼同位素等)大气CO2浓度 新生代 [31] 全球 底栖有孔虫氧同位素 全球海平面 0～40 Ma [32] 全球 有机质TEX86 SST 新生代 [33] 
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