The response of the Western Pacific to high-and low-sea levels: based on ROMS experiments
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摘要:
地质历史时期海平面变化叠加在板块运动之上，引起海岸线进退、沿海和陆架区域出露或淹没，从而影响全球大洋环流格局和区域海洋系统。本研究聚焦西太平洋对极端海平面升降的响应，使用区域海洋模式（ROMS）探讨末次盛冰期（LGM）情景下极端低海平面SLdrop120（海平面下降120 m）和全球大陆冰盖融化情况下极端高海平面SLrise65（海平面上升65 m）对该区域温盐格局和主要洋流的影响。研究结果显示，海平面升降对该区域洋流系统有重要非线性影响，而对温盐格局影响主要体现在边缘海或靠近大陆边缘区域，且可以通过贯通性变化来解释这些差异。与现代海平面相比，极端低海平面导致近岸陆架海出露、台湾海峡关闭等，切断了西边界流入侵南海，导致东海的黑潮输运向外海方向移动，主轴断面流量减少。与前人考虑LGM冰期气候态的研究结果相比，此减少趋势说明LGM时期海平面降低和冰期气候驱动的效应相抵消。而高海平面则引起岸线向陆推移，渤海等近海海域面积增加、台湾海峡拓宽，使得西边界流向西拓展，对黑潮主流结构有分流作用。关于控制太平洋和印度洋交换的印尼贯穿流ITF，其西支路径因水深较浅而对海平面变化响应更明显。在极端低海平面情景下，卡里马塔海峡关闭、ITF的西支被切断，来自西支的淡水阻塞效应因此消失，这导致通过望加锡海峡的流量反而增加了2.31 Sv（1Sv=1×106 m3/s）；相反，在高海平面情景下，西侧的卡里马塔海峡和望加锡海峡均变宽，同时托雷斯海峡打开，使得进入印度洋的流量比现在海平面情景增大。这些结果表明，西太平洋黑潮和印尼贯穿流对海岸线变迁的响应呈非线性规律，并强调了地质历史演化过程中海平面变化对区域洋流的重要作用。
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关键词:
- 区域海洋模式(ROMS) /
- 东海黑潮 (KC) /
- 印尼贯穿流 (ITF) /
- 大陆冰量变化 /
- 极端海平面升降
Abstract:Superimposed on tectonic movements, sea level changes during geologic history caused coastline advancement and retreat, exposing shallow shelf or submerging coastal regions, and thus influencing regional ocean currents and global ocean circulation. The Regional Ocean Model (ROMS) was used to simulate the response of the West Pacific thermohaline pattern and major ocean currents in the low sea level scenarios, e.g., the SLdrop120 (sea level drop by 120 m) case during the last glacial maximum (LGM), and the high sea level scenarios, e.g., the SLrise65 (sea level rise by 65 m) case during the global ice sheet melting. Results show that sea level rise and fall have more significant non-linear influences on ocean currents than on temperature and salinity schemes. Compared with the modern sea level, the extremely low sea level led to the exposure of the near-shore shelf sea and the closure of the Taiwan Strait, cutting off the invasion of the western boundary current into the South China Sea, causing the Kuroshio transport in the East China Sea to move toward the open sea and reducing the flow rate in the main axis section. Compared with previous research results considering the LGM glacial climate state, this decreasing trend indicates that the effects of sea level drop during the LGM period and glacial climate driving offset each other. The high sea level pushes the shoreline landward, the area of coastal waters such as the Bohai Sea increases, and the Taiwan Strait widens, causing the western boundary current to expand westward, which would diverse the mainstream of the Kuroshio. Regarding the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF), which controls the exchange between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, its western branch path responds more significantly to sea level changes due to its shallower depth. Under the extreme low sea level scenario, the Karimata Strait is closed and the western branch of the ITF is cut off, so the freshwater blocking effect from the western branch disappears, which leads to an increase of 2.31 Sv (1 Sv=1×106 m3/s) in the flow through the Makassar Strait. On the contrary, under the high sea level scenario, both the Karimata Strait and the Makassar Strait on the west side are widened, and the Torres Strait is opened, which makes the flow into the Indian Ocean larger than the modern sea level scenario. This study demonstrated that the responses of the Kuroshio and the Indonesian Throughflow in the western Pacific to the change of the coastline is nonlinear, and emphasized the important role of sea level changes in regional ocean currents during geological evolution.
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图 1 西太平洋地形与主要洋流路径
改自文献 [6]。a： 苏禄海，b：苏拉威西海，c： 马鲁古海，d： 班达海，e：帝汶海，f： 爪哇海。1：卡里马塔海峡，2： 吕宋海峡，3： 望加锡海峡。
Figure 1. Topography of the western Pacific Ocean and major ocean current routes
The map is adapted from reference [6]. a: Sulu Sea, b: Sulawesi Sea, c: Molucca Sea, d: Banda Sea, e: Timor Sea, f: Java Sea. 1: Karimata Strai, 2: Luzon Strait, 3: Makassar Strait.
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图 2 ROMS试验中的水深
a、b、c分别为SLdrop120、SLctrl和 SLrise65试验中海陆分布及水深。
Figure 2. Bathymetry in the ROMS experiments
a,b,c represent the land-sea distribution and bathymetry settings in the SLdrop120, SLctrl, and SLrise65 experiments, respectively.
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图 3 控制试验中SST、SSS、流场和流速结果与SODA同化数据对比
a-c、d-f、g-i和j-l分别为SLctrl试验和SODA再分析数据中海表盐度（SSS）、海表温度（SST）、表层流场和垂向平均流场以及两组结果的差值（ROMS−SODA），其中流场叠加了对应的流速（$ \sqrt{{u}^{2}+{v}^{2}} $）。
Figure 3. Comparison of simulated SST, SSS, velocity, weighted average velocity field of the SLctrl with the SODA assimilation data
a-c, d-f, g-i, and j-l represent SSS, SST, the results of surface currents and vertical averaged currents of last 10 years in the SLctrl simulations, SODA dataset and their differences (ROMS−SODA), respectively, in which the currents results are overlapped with their velocity $ (\sqrt{{u}^{2}+{v}^{2}} $).
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图 4 3组试验模拟的年平均海表温度（a-c）和盐度（d-f）空间分布
Figure 4. Simulated sea surface temperature (a-c) and sea surface salinity (d-f,) of the three experiments
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图 5 试验模拟的黑潮区域表层流场（a-c）和垂向平均流场（d-f）
图中箭头显示矢量流场，颜色为流速大小（即sqrt (u2+v2)）。
Figure 5. Simulated surface currents (a-c) and vertically averaged currents (d-f,) of the Kuroshio Current
The arrows indicate current vector, and the filled colors represent their strength (i.e. sqrt (u2+v2)).
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图 6 试验模拟的印尼贯穿流表层流场（a-c）和垂向平均流场（d-f）
其中箭头显示矢量流场，颜色表示流速大小（即，sqrt (u2+v2)）。
Figure 6. Simulated surface currents (a-c) and vertically averaged currents (d-f) of the Indonesian Throughflow
The arrows indicate current vector, and the filled colors represent their strength (i.e. sqrt (u2+v2).
表 1 黑潮和印尼贯穿流的关键断面年平均流量 (Sv)
Table 1 The annual mean volume transport cross sections (in Sv) relevant to Kuroshio and ITF
试验 黑潮 印尼贯穿流 KCPN TS ETC KRS MKS SODA 16.32 1.22 21.59 −1.17 −11.02 HYCOM 11.45 1.29 23.74 −0.54 −11.39 SLctrl 20.00 0.79 28.17 −3.88 −3.0 SLrise65 11.70 3.68 22.00 −4.21 −1.32 SLdrop120 9.82 0 14.80 0 −5.31 注：KCPN： 黑潮主轴断面， TS： 台湾海峡， ETC：台湾岛东侧海峡， KRS：卡里马塔海峡， MKS： 望加锡海峡。 表中断面流量是通过断面平均流速（图5d-f、 6d-f）乘以断面面积所得，负号表示方向向南或者向西。 
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