Progress in marine oil and gas survey in Qingdao Institute of Marine Geology over the past 45 Years
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摘要:
石油和天然气资源是重要的能源矿产和战略性资源，海洋蕴含着丰富的油气资源，青岛海洋地质研究所（简称青岛所）自1979年重建始，便开启了海域油气资源调查、研究与评价工作的序幕。45年来，青岛所持续开展了海域及邻区含油气盆地对比、黄东海新区新层系油气资源调查评价、中国海域和海丝路海域油气勘探开发形势分析，并于2019和2021年开展了2个航次的北印度洋重点海域联合地质科学考查。本文回顾了45年以来青岛所海域油气调查与研究历史，梳理了取得的主要进展，重点介绍了海域新区新层系油气资源调查技术、东部海域新区新层系油气地质新认识、印度扇近海盆地的科学考查发现与认识、海域油气资源勘探开发总体形势与战略性方向，梳理了面临的主要挑战，同时展望了油气调查主要领域和方向，这对进一步摸清海域油气资源家底、服务海域油气矿政管理和国家能源资源安全保障具有重要意义。
Abstract:Oil and natural gas resources are important energy minerals and strategic resources. The ocean contains abundant oil and gas resources. Since its reconstruction in 1979, the Qingdao Institute of Marine Geology (the Qingdao Institute in short) has begun the investigation, research, and evaluation of marine oil and gas resources. Over the past 45 years, the Qingdao Institute has been continuing to carry out the studies in the correlation of oil and gas bearing basins in the sea area and adjacent areas, the investigation and evaluation of oil and gas resources in new area and new strata in the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, the analysis of oil and gas exploration and development situation in China's sea area and the Sea Silk Road sea area, and the joint geological and scientific survey of key marine areas in the North Indian Ocean. This article reviews the 45-year history of oil and gas exploration and research in the sea area by the Qingdao Institute, summarizes the main achievement, and focuses on introducing the investigation techniques for oil and gas resources in the new areas and new strata, the new geological understanding of oil and gas in the new areas and new strata of the eastern sea area, the scientific research findings and understanding of the Indus Fan basin, the exploration and development situation, and strategic direction of oil and gas resources in the sea area; and puts forward the main challenges faced. At the same time, it looks forward to the main fields and directions of future oil and gas investigation, which is of great significance for further understanding of the wealth of oil and gas resources in the sea area, serving the management of oil and gas mining in the sea area, and ensuring national energy security.
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南黄海构造上是扬子板块在海域的延伸，是下扬子的主体。南黄海盆地是由中-古生界海相沉积盆地和中-新生界陆相沉积盆地叠加而成的大型含油气沉积盆地。南黄海盆地由南往北为勿南沙隆起、青岛坳陷、崂山隆起、烟台坳陷和千里岩隆起，为“两坳三隆”的构造格局[1-3](图 1)。
经过40多年的油气勘探认为, 南黄海中-古生界海相碳酸盐岩沉积层分布广、埋藏深、厚度大，具有良好的油气前景，是重要的油气勘探远景区[3-5]。由于碳酸盐岩地层具有很强的纵、横向非均质性，对地震波场产生很强的散射和屏蔽作用，地层间物性差异小、反射能量弱，造成深部目的层地震频带窄、低频能量不够丰富，多次波发育，资料品质差，地震成像困难；剖面上目标层有效波能量弱、连续性差、分辨率和信噪比低，难以横向对比追踪[6-10]。
针对上述问题，地震采集参数不断改进：电缆长度从3000m增大到8100m、震源容量从2940in3增大到6420in3、记录长度从6s延长到12s，地震成像质量得到一定的改善，但深层的地震资料仍存在信噪比不高、分辨率较低、连续性较差等问题[11, 12]。
目前常用的气枪等深组合震源能够很好地消除气枪震源的气泡效应；随着技术的发展，工业界开始采用上下源或者多层深度气枪阵列延时激发技术来压制陷波效应，拓宽频带，以PGS公司GeoSource[13]技术和CGG公司BroadSource[14]技术为代表。结合国内外气枪组合震源设计技术，有必要针对该区特殊地震地质条件开展气枪组合震源的精细设计。
本文在以往南黄海地震地质条件分析的基础上，梳理了南黄海浅层、中深层地震地质条件，重点分析、探讨了南黄海崂山隆起中-古生界反射层成像质量差的原因；针对深层设计了2组低频成分丰富、能量强的气枪组合震源方案，使得激发产生的震源子波信号穿透性更强；通过外业试验，优选了低频更强的平面组合震源作为地震采集震源方案；与以往地震资料进行了对比，本次采集的地震资料能量衰减较慢，深层能量更强，整体改善了T2不整合面下伏反射层的成像质量，为该区的深层油气勘探奠定基础。
1. 地震地质条件
根据南黄海钻井资料及邻区资料，陈建文等认为南黄海叠合盆地发育碎屑岩和碳酸盐岩两种类型的沉积建造。不同沉积建造因成分和结构的差异具有不同的速度和密度特征；不同时代的同一沉积建造经历了不同的成岩和地质演化过程，速度和密度也有差异[15-17]。
因不同时代和不同岩性的地层界面存在波阻抗，南黄海盆地在地震剖面上存在T2、T4、T7、T7-1、T7-2、T8、T9、T10、T11、T11-1、T12、T13和Tg等13个主要反射界面，其中T2、T8和Tg为3个区域不整合面的反映[15]。各界面上下地层的地质属性及其岩性组合特征如表 1所示。
表 1 南黄海盆地地震反射界面以及地质属性(据陈建文等，2016年)Table 1. The seismic reflection interfaces and their geological properties
1.1 浅层地震地质条件
南黄海水深0~103m，水深50m以浅表层沉积物以粉砂质砂、砂质粉砂为主[18]，容易在海底与海面之间产生多次反射。如图 2所示，南黄海某海域近道剖面海底多次波影响振幅能量强，中深反射层也受其影响，影响范围大。
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图 2 南黄海某海域近道剖面多次波特征Figure 2. The multiple characteristics in a near trace profile of South Yellow Sea虽然地震处理技术可压制海底多次波[19, 20]，但采集设计时，在考虑深层反射能量足够的情况下，应避免气枪组合震源能量过大，增强低频成分，以减少海底多次波或其他类型干扰波的影响。
1.2 中深层地震地质条件
南黄海盆地烟台坳陷和青岛坳陷浅部存在两个主要的强反射界面，分别是T2和T8。在崂山隆起和勿南沙隆起，缺失了古近系和陆相中生界，新近系和下三叠统海相碳酸盐岩或更老的地层直接接触，T2和T8为同一界面[21]。
当浅部地层存在强反射界面时，反射波临界角比较小，很小的入射角就可能产生全反射[22]，纵波很难透射，形成能量屏蔽作用，减小深层反射波的能量；反射回来的那部分能量容易在海底和海面等强反射界面形成多次反射波、折射波等干扰波，进而影响深层反射波的信噪比。
南黄海海相中-古生界发育3套碳酸盐岩地层，由上往下分别是下三叠统青龙组、下二叠统栖霞组-中上石炭统和中上寒武统。碳酸盐岩地层结构较为均匀、厚度较大、速度和密度梯度小，在地震剖面上其内部反射能量偏弱，没有清晰的反射波同相轴[21]。
图 3是南黄海某海域叠前时间偏移叠加剖面，同为深层反射(双程旅行时4s附近)，A区和B区地震反射波特征差异较大。A区为新生界地层，其岩性以砂泥岩为主，因经历的构造运动简单，沉积压实作用时间较短，造成不同反射界面波阻抗差异较大，反射波能量较强，同相轴连续性较好；B区为中-古生界地层，如上所述，存在较厚的碳酸盐岩地层，并经历了复杂的构造运动，很难形成较强的波阻抗界面，反射波能量较弱，深层反射的信噪比较差。
近些年针对T2强反射界面、下三叠统青龙组等碳酸盐岩较厚高速层造成中-古生界地层反射波能量弱的问题，立体电缆、大容量震源、长电缆等针对性地震采集技术开始试验、探讨，成像质量得到一定的改善，但仍存在一定问题。为了进一步提高成像质量，需要震源子波信号能量大、穿透性强。
2. 气枪组合震源设计
根据地震地质条件分析，本文气枪组合震源的设计目标是激发能量强(主峰值大)、低频段能量强(特别是60Hz以内频段[15])、有效频段频谱光滑。
通过气枪组合震源理论研究及模拟分析，认识到：不同容量大小的单个气枪所激发出来的子波信号主频不同，通常大容量气枪偏低频，小容量气枪偏高频；在气枪组合震源中，大容量气枪起主要作用，决定了整个气枪阵列的能量和偏低频成分，小容量气枪对子波信号主要起修饰作用，使子波更光滑，偏高频成分更丰富，不能一味用小容量气枪，同样也不能一味用大容量气枪，需要大小容量气枪合理组合，设计时就是将这些不同频率的子波信号有效地组合成用于地震勘探的高能量宽频率的子波信号，其中还需要考虑对第一气泡效应的压制，这中间牵涉到相干组合和调谐组合，并且依此需要确定合理地相干间距和调谐间距[23-27]。
基于以上认识以及针对南黄海深部地层的设计目标，结合发现6号物探船现有气枪类型、容量、吊点长度以及备件等情况，设计了20余组气枪组合震源，并从中优选出总容量为6390in3的气枪组合震源(4子阵)，图 4为其气枪平面排布示意图。
6390in3气枪组合震源分别沉放6、8、10、12m，受虚反射陷波效应影响，其远场子波各参数统计见表 2，远场子波波形、频谱对比见图 5和图 6。随着沉放深度的增加，优势频宽快速变窄，沉放12m相比沉放6m远场子波优势频宽减小约52.7%；低频段(6~20Hz)振幅能量逐渐增加，沉放12m相比沉放6m的远场子波频谱6~20Hz低频段振幅能量增加4~5dB；地震资料的频带宽度过窄会影响其分辨率，沉放12m时，远场子波的优势频宽(-6dB)仅为44Hz，初泡比为13.8，低于行业规范15以上的要求；沉放10m时，远场子波的优势频宽(-6dB)提升到60Hz，初泡比19.9，满足行业规范，且相比沉放12m远场子波频谱6~20Hz低频段振幅能量略有降低，主峰值略高，相比沉放8、6m低频段优势明显。
表 2 气枪组合震源(6390in3)不同沉放深度模拟远场子波参数统计Table 2. The far-field seismic wavelet parameters on 6390in3 source in different depths沉放深度/m 主峰值/(bar·m) 峰-峰值/(bar·m) 初泡比 低截频/(-6dB，Hz) 高截频/(-6dB，Hz) 优势频宽/(-6dB，Hz) 主频/(-6dB，Hz) 6 113.0 234.7 26.1 6 99 93 52.5 8 107.7 222.2 19.8 6 89 83 47.5 10 110.6 228.0 19.9 6 66 60 36 12 106.9 220.3 13.8 6 50 44 28 ![]()
图 5 气枪组合震源(6390in3)不同沉放深度模拟远场子波波形对比Figure 5. Comparison of the far-field seismic wavelet signature of 6390in3 source in different depths![]()
图 6 气枪组合震源(6390in3)不同沉放深度模拟远场子波频谱对比Figure 6. Comparison of the far-field seismic wavelet spectrum of 6390in3 source in different depths综合考虑虚反射第一个陷波频段、气枪组合震源(6390in3)不同沉放深度远场子波优势频宽、低频段振幅能量、主峰值，确定本次平面气枪组合震源沉放深度10m。
在此基础上，考虑到4子阵震源能量分布的对称性及虚反射陷波效应[28-33]，设计1组两个深度值气枪立体组合震源，受制于硬件条件，最深沉放深度为10m，另一个较浅深度分别设计为5.5、7和8.5m，沉放10m的子阵列相比较浅深度的子阵列分别延迟3、2和1ms。其远场子波各参数统计见表 3，远场子波波形、频谱对比见图 7和图 8。
表 3 气枪立体组合震源(6390in3)不同沉放深度模拟远场子波参数统计Table 3. The far-field seismic wavelet parameters on 6390in3 source in different depths沉放深度/m 主峰值/
(bar·m)峰-峰值/
(bar·m)初泡比 低截频/
(-6dB，Hz)高截频/
(-6dB，Hz)优势频宽/
(-6dB，Hz)主频/
(-6dB，Hz)5.5/10 109.1 183.5 20.1 6 70 64 38.0 7/10 112.6 182.5 20.6 6 70 64 38.0 8.5/10 108.4 206.7 20.8 6 69 63 37.5 ![]()
图 7 气枪立体组合震源(6390in3)不同沉放深度模拟远场子波波形对比Figure 7. Comparison of the far-field seismic wavelet spectrum of 6390in3 source in different depths![]()
图 8 气枪立体组合震源(6390in3)不同沉放深度模拟远场子波频谱对比Figure 8. Comparison of the far-field seismic wavelet spectrum of 6390in3 source in different depths3种深度组合其频谱在70Hz以内相差不大；其主峰值占比(主峰值/峰-峰值)相差较大，分别为59.5%、61.7%和52.4%，由表 2可计算均沉放10m的气枪平面组合震源其主峰值占比为48.5%，主峰值占比越高，说明对鬼波的压制效果也好，由此选择7、10m这2个深度值进行气枪立体组合。
进一步模拟分析7、10m两个深度值所组成的不同形状气枪立体组合震源，其远场子波各参数统计见表 4。不同组合形状其频谱在70Hz以内相差不大，主峰值或峰-峰值差别也较小；第1组“倒梯形”相比第2组“正梯形”、第3组“N形”初泡比较高，据此确定本次气枪立体组合震源采用“倒梯形”。
表 4 气枪立体组合震源(6390in3)不同组合形状模拟远场子波参数统计Table 4. The seismic wavelet parameters of 6390in3 multi-level source in different shapes序号 震源沉放
深度/m主峰值/
(bar·m)峰-峰值/
(bar·m)初泡比 低截频/
(-6dB，Hz)高截频/
(-6dB，Hz)优势频宽/
(-6dB，Hz)主频/
(-6dB，Hz)1 倒梯形7-10-10-7 112.6 182.5 20.6 6 70 64 38.0 2 正梯形10-7-7-10 112.1 178.0 18.0 6 70 64 38.0 3 N形10-7-10-7 112.4 178.6 15.3 6 70 64 38.0 2012年发现2号物探船采用气枪立体组合震源(总容量5040in3)进行地震勘探，南黄海中深层地震成像效果有了较大的改善[34]，其远场子波主峰值82.8bar·m。6390in3平面组合震源相比5040in3立体组合震源主峰值约提高34%，65Hz以内频段振幅能量提高3~5dB，65~82Hz频段因虚反射陷波的影响，差于5040in3立体组合震源(图 9、图 10)；6390in3“倒梯形”立体组合震源相比5040in3立体组合震源主峰值约提高36%，200Hz以内频段振幅能量提高2~5dB(图 11、图 12)；考虑到本次勘探目的，6390in3平面和立体组合震源远场子波性能均优于5040in3立体组合震源。
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图 9 6390in3气枪平面组合震源和5040in3立体组合震源远场子波波形对比Figure 9. Seismic wavelet comparison of 6390in3 traditional source and 5040in3 multi-level source![]()
图 10 6390in3气枪平面组合震源和5040in3立体组合震源远场子波频谱对比Figure 10. Spectrum comparison of 6390in3 traditional source and 5040in3 multi-level source![]()
图 11 6390in3“倒梯形”立体组合震源和5040in3立体组合震源远场子波波形对比Figure 11. Seismic wavelet comparison of 6390in3 multi-level source with inverted-trapezoid shape and 5040in3 multi-level source![]()
图 12 6390in3“倒梯形”立体组合震源和5040in3立体组合震源远场子波频谱对比Figure 12. Spectrum comparison of 6390in3 multi-level source with inverted-trapezoid shape and 5040in3 multi-level source6390in3气枪平面组合震源和“倒梯形”立体组合震源远场子波波形及频谱对比见图 13、图 14。主峰值相差不大，峰-峰值相差较大，立体组合相比平面组合震源峰-峰值降低45.5bar.m，这是因为立体组合震源对虚反射有一定压制作用。两者远场子波频谱各有特点，在50Hz以内频段平面组合相比立体组合震源振幅能量提高0.5~1.5dB；50~85Hz频段，平面组合震源在此频段内陷波效应明显，特别是75Hz左右，几乎得不到有效信号，立体组合震源改善了虚反射陷波效应的影响，频谱相对光滑。所以确定平面组合震源性能最优沉放10m和立体组合震源最优“倒梯形”(7m-10m-10m-7m)这2组震源方案进行外业试验，根据实际效果进一步优选出后续地震勘探所用的气枪组合震源。
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图 13 6390in3气枪平面组合震源和“倒梯形”立体组合震源远场子波波形对比Figure 13. Seismic wavelet comparison of 6390in3 traditional source and multi-level source with inverted-trapezoid shape![]()
图 14 6390in3气枪平面组合震源和“倒梯形”立体组合震源远场子波频谱对比Figure 14. Spectrum comparison of 6390in3 traditional source and multi-level source with inverted-trapezoid shape3. 试验方案对比
本次地震采集针对震源类型、电缆沉放深度进行试验，具体试验方案见表 5，在试验线进行4次同方向施工。试验方案1为平面组合震源沉放10m，电缆沉放16m；试验方案2为平面组合震源沉放10m，电缆沉放20m；试验方案3为“倒梯形”立体组合震源(7m-10m-10m-7m)，电缆沉放20m；试验方案4为“倒梯形”立体组合震源(7m-10m-10m-7m)，电缆沉放16m。
表 5 地震数据采集参数试验方案Table 5. 4 test plans for acquisition of parameters试验方案 震源类型 震源沉放深度/m 电缆沉放深度/m 1 平面组合震源 10 16 2 平面组合震源 10 20 3 “倒梯形”立体组合震源 7-10-10-7 20 4 “倒梯形”立体组合震源 7-10-10-7 16 在试验采集完成后，对试验数据进行了处理分析。图 15、图 16分别是4组试验方案初叠剖面及目的层段(双程旅行时1.5~3s)频谱分析。
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图 16 4组试验方案目的层段(双程旅行时1.5~3s)频谱分析Figure 16. Spectrum analysis of the target strata (double travel time 1.5~3s) of the 4 test plans对4组试验方案进行处理分析，因现场条件限制，通过相同的处理流程只做到初叠剖面。初步对比分析4组试验方案的初叠剖面，T2不整合面下伏反射层反射波信号，4组试验方案反射波组能量、连续性等特征相差不大；试验方案1相比其他试验方案反射波组能量略强，连续性略好。分析双程旅行时1.5~3s反射波组的频谱特征，如图 16所示，在6~40Hz频段，试验方案1相比其他试验方案振幅能量更强，并且在45Hz以内频段无明显陷波点。综上，现场确定试验方案1，即平面组合震源沉放10m、电缆沉放16m作为本次地震采集方案。
为了进一步分析本次地震采集的效果，将试验方案1和试验方案4采集的地震资料进行相同的精细处理，处理过程主要包括低切滤波、去干扰波、SRME、Taup反褶积、Radon去多次波、DMO叠加、叠后偏移等，处理过程中使用了相同的速度和切除。如图 17所示，电缆沉放深度均为16m，平面组合震源沉放10m相比“倒梯形”立体组合震源(7m-10m-10m-7m)所获得的地震剖面，1.6s附近的有效反射无论在能量还是连续性上都有优势[25]。
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图 17 试验方案1和4叠后偏移剖面对比(据陈建文等，2016年)Figure 17. Comparison of post-migration profiles between test plan 1 and plan 4图 13、图 14为6390in3气枪平面组合震源沉放10m和“倒梯形”立体组合震源远场子波波形及频谱对比图。主峰值相差不大，在50Hz以内频段平面组合相比立体组合震源振幅能量提高0.5~1.5dB。电缆沉放16m，如前所述，因电缆接收的反射波信号已经过大地滤波，模拟分析时为了更接近实际采集的地震波信号，根据南黄海地层地球物理特征，针对双程旅行时3s的反射层，赋值地层吸收衰减因子Q=110，对比分析6390in3气枪平面组合震源沉放10m和“倒梯形”立体组合震源电缆沉放16m时子波波形及频谱(图 18、图 19)，平面组合震源沉放10m的子波能量较强，40Hz以内(特别是6~20Hz)振幅能量增加明显，更利于中、深层地震勘探。
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图 18 平面和立体组合震源电缆沉放16m子波波形对比(T=3s，Q=110)Figure 18. Comparison of the seismic wavelet on conventional and multi-level source in 16m(T=3s, Q=110)![]()
图 19 平面和立体组合震源电缆沉放16m子波频谱对比(T=3s，Q=110)Figure 19. Comparison of the seismic wavelet spectrum on conventional and multi-level source in 16m(T=3s, Q=110)4. 与以往资料对比
分析平面组合震源沉放10m、电缆沉放16m采集的单炮记录浅、中、深层(双程旅行时分别为0.6~1.4、1.6~2.6、2.8~3.8s)均方根振幅，并与以往相邻位置采集的单炮记录进行对比，如图 20所示，以往采集的单炮记录中、深层均方根振幅相对浅层均方根振幅能量占比分别为28%、23%，而本次新采集的单炮记录中、深层均方根振幅相对浅层均方根振幅能量占比分别为41%、36%，即本次采集的地震资料能量衰减较慢，深层能量更强。
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图 20 单炮记录浅、中、深层均方根振幅对比分析Figure 20. Comparison of the RMS Aptitudes on shallow, middle and deep strata in single shot gathers选取相邻位置以往采集的地震资料与本次新采集的地震资料进行处理，并做叠前时间偏移，处理流程及选用的速度参数等相同，其叠加剖面如图 21所示。相比以往采集的地震资料，处理后本次采集的地震剖面，T2不整合面及下伏反射界面的断点更加清晰；1s左右(箭头所示)的反射波组能量更强，连续性更好；中、深层(1.5~2.5s)反射波组能量、连续性得到一定程度的改善，也使得背斜构造特征更加明显。综上，本次采集增强了T2不整合面下伏反射波能量，改善了反射波组的连续性，使下伏地层的构造特征更加清晰，整体改善了T2不整合面下伏反射层的成像质量，达到了本次勘探的目的。
5. 结论
(1) 南黄海中-古生界地层经历长期的压实作用及复杂的构造运动之后，波阻抗差异变小，构造特征更为复杂，使得深层有效的地震反射信号较弱，地震波场复杂；浅部存在T2强反射界面及多套碳酸盐岩高速层，进一步减弱中深部反射波能量，且易形成多次波，进而降低中深部反射信号的信噪比。为了改善中-古生界反射波成像质量，优化设计出6390in3富低频、强能量的气枪组合震源；
(2) 气枪组合震源的设计影响因素较多，针对勘探目的优选组合参数是关键。设计好气枪容量组合方案后，气枪沉放深度就是主要优选的参数。气枪沉放深度浅高频能量占优，低频能量较弱；为增强低频能量，通常会加深气枪沉放深度，在低频能量增强的同时，优势频带变窄，激发能量减弱。为了改善中-古生界反射波成像质量，需要激发能量和低频能量均强的气枪组合震源。根据物探船现有气枪类型、容量、吊点长度以及模拟分析等情况，沉放深度10m是一个较好的平衡点。通过外业试验验证了沉放10m的平面组合震源比“倒梯形”立体组合震源(4子阵沉放深度分别为7、10、10、7m)低频能量较强，地层吸收衰减后激发能量也较强；
(3) 与以往地震资料进行了对比，本次采集的地震资料能量衰减较慢，深层能量更强，整体改善了T2不整合面下伏反射层的成像质量，为该区的深层油气勘探奠定基础。
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图 1 南黄海海相中—古生界地震层序及地质属性标定图
据参考文献[39]修改。S1—S7为海相中—古生界地震层序，T2相当于新近系底界，B1—B3为三套典型地震反射标志层组.
Figure 1. Paleozoic-Mesozoic seismic sequence and geological attributes correlation in the South Yellow Sea
Modified from reference [39]. S1 to S7 are the seismic sequences of marine Paleozoic-Mesozoic. T2 is the bottom boundary of Neogene. The B1 to B3 are the three typical seismic marker layers.
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图 2 南黄海重磁震联合反演剖面
Figure 2. Joint inversion profile by gravity, magnetic, and seismic data in the South Yellow Sea
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图 3 南黄海崂山隆起古生界“多源多期”成藏模式
Figure 3. The Paleozoic "multi-source multi-stage" accumulation model in the Laoshan Uplift of the South Yellow Sea
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图 5 东海盆地南部中生代构造单元[87]
Figure 5. Mesozoic tectonic units in the southern part of the East China Sea Basin
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图 6 东海盆地南部地震解释剖面[87]
Figure 6. Seismic interpretation profile of the southern part of the East China Sea Basin
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图 10 重力滑动构造剖面
上图为挤压区，下图为过渡区和伸展区。
Figure 10. Profile of gravity sliding structure
The compression zone (upper panel) and transition zone and extension zone (lower panel).
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