Effects of seamount subduction on structural deformation of Hikurangi accretionary wedge: Insights from discrete-element modeling
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摘要: 海山等粗糙海底的俯冲对增生楔的结构、地貌、应力和地震灾害有着重要的影响。希库朗伊(Hikurangi)俯冲带位于新西兰北岛外海,希库朗伊高原向西正以40~47 mm/a的速率俯冲于澳大利亚板块之下。希库朗伊高原内部发育大量形态各异的海山,其俯冲造成希库朗伊北缘经历了严重的构造侵蚀。目前该区域的慢滑移事件有了很好的地震学和测地学约束,但对于希库朗伊北缘的构造侵蚀和构造应力体制如何演化以及对地震活动的影响仍然不清。本文基于离散元方法(DEM)数值模拟,结合地震反射剖面,探讨了海山俯冲对希库朗伊俯冲带北缘增生楔的形态、断裂结构、活动性、应变分配的影响。模拟结果显示海山的俯冲在其顶部形成一条巨型分支断层(mega-splay fault),吸收主要的缩短量并沿海底发生长距离、低角度逆冲推覆。随着俯冲的持续,海山前缘形成一个双重构造剪切带,而随着滑脱层的下移并向前扩展,最终形成前缘逆冲断裂体系。模拟证实海山俯冲提高了弧前增生楔内应力分布的非均质性,海山前缘最大剪切应力显著累积,而海山后缘则表现为一个稳定的应力影区。海山俯冲显著增加了希库朗伊俯冲带板间逆冲断层的几何粗糙度和物质非均质性,对微地震和慢滑移事件的产生具有重要影响。Abstract: Subduction of rough seafloor such as seamounts has an important influence on structure, geomorphology, stress, and seismic hazard of accretionary wedges. The Hikurangi subduction zone lies on the North Island of New Zealand, and the Hikurangi Plateau is subducting beneath the Australian Plate at a rate of 40–47 mm/a. Many seamounts of various shapes are distributed in the Hikurangi Plateau, whose subduction caused severe tectonic erosion along the northern Hikurangi Margin. In recent years, slow slip events (SSEs) have been well documented in seismology and geodesy at the Hikurangi northern margin. However, the evolution of tectonic erosion, structural stress regime, and their influences on seismicity remain unclear. By applying the discrete-element numerical simulation in combination with the interpretations of seismic reflection profile, the effects of seamount subduction on wedge geometry, fault structure, activity and strain distribution of the accretionary prism on the northern Hikurangi subduction margin were analyzed. The simulation result show that the subduction of a guyot seamount formed a mega-splay fault, which absorbed the substantial shortening and thrusts along the seafloor with low angle. With the subduction continued, a duplex shear zone was formed at the leading edge of the seamount, while the detachment moved down and extended forward to evolve into a frontal-thrust zone. Our simulations confirm that the seamount subduction enhanced the heterogeneity of the stress distribution within the forearc accretionary wedge, with significant accumulation of maximum shear stress at the leading edge of the seamount, while the rear edge of the seamount behaved as a stable stress shadow zone. The seamount subduction significantly increased the geometric roughness and material heterogeneity along the megathrust in the Hikurangi Margin, which has important implications for the generation of micro-earthquakes and slow slip events.
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海洋油气管道的安全性直接与管道周边地基土体的稳定性相关。粉土容易在振动中产生液化现象[1],使土体承载力下降,进而导致管道泄漏等事件。因此,粉土的动强度特性,尤其是孔隙水压力发展特性直接关系到海洋油气管道的稳定性。
目前,国内外学者在循环荷载作用下动孔隙水压力发展方面进行了大量研究,建立了多个模型进行动孔压模型拟合,比较常用的有应力[2-5]、应变[6-7]、内时[8]、能量[9-10]、有效应力路径[11]及瞬态[12]等模型。其中应力模型是将孔压和施加的应力联系起来,将孔压表示为应力和振动次数的函数,最早由Seed等[2]针对饱和砂土提出,现运用最为广泛。但上述模型多是针对砂土和黏土提出的,较少应用于粉土。因此,许多学者开始致力于粉土孔压发展模型的研究。于镰洪和王波[13]将孔压与循环振次联系起来提出了孔压拟合公式:
$$ \mu /{\mu _1} = \left( {N/{N_{\rm{f}}}} \right)^{1/\alpha} \;\;\;\;\;\;\;\left( {{K_{\rm{c}}} {\text{>}} 1.0} \right) $$ 式中,μ为累积孔隙水压力,μ1为最大孔隙水压力,N为循环振动次数,Kc为固结比,Nf为试验结束时的振动次数,α为试验常数,一般粉土可取2或3。
曾长女等[14]针对不同黏粒含量的粉土建立了粉土孔压发展曲线:
$$ {\mu _{\rm{d}}}/{\sigma _3} = a\left( {1 - {{\rm{e}}^{ - b\left( {N/{N_{\rm{f}}}} \right)}}} \right) $$ 式中,μd为振动N次的循环峰值振动孔压或称为孔压最大值,σ3为试样的初始有效围压,N为循环振次,Nf为试验结束时的振动次数,a、b为试验参数,μd/σ3稳定后的极限值为1。
针对上述粉土孔压发展指数模型和影响孔压变化的因素,学者们也进行了大量的室内三轴试验和其他试验方法进行验证和改进:罗强等通过动三轴试验,对不同的孔压模型进行了对比,认为Seed 孔压模型具有较强的实用性,但指数模型更适用于描述粉土的孔压发展规律[15];李治朋等认为100 kPa围压下粉土孔隙水压力的增长模式不能用统一的Seed模型拟合[16];而丁志宇等的研究表明Seed 孔压模型对100 kPa围压下细粒含量低的粉土孔压拟合效果较好[17];马一霁等对粉土孔压发展规律进行了室内动三轴试验和有限元对比分析,发现在振动作用下,粉土孔隙水压力在前期快速上升,后期增长逐渐缓慢,并最终趋于稳定[18];曹成林等的试验认为50 kPa围压下,在动应力幅值比较大时, 粉土的孔压增长速度较快[19];王海龙利用共振柱仪对粉土进行试验,认为100~300 kPa围压下粉土振动孔隙水压力的变化规律可以用二次抛物线拟合[20];刘茜等利用室内动三轴和振动柱试验,提出了80 kPa围压下原状粉土的振动孔压上升模型[21];杨秀娟等试验表明当不同的动荷载作用时,50 kPa围压下饱和粉土在最初的1/3 振次内孔隙水压力急剧上升,然后逐渐增大趋于稳定[22];孟凡丽等研究认为100~200 kPa围压下,细粒对粉土的孔压发展影响明显,在孔压发展的初始阶段黏粒质量占12%时增量最显著[23];Belkhatir等通过不排水三轴试验表明,砂-粉土在有效围压100 kPa的情况下,孔隙水压力随细粒含量的增加呈线性增加,随粒间孔隙率的增加呈对数增加[24]。
综上所述,循环荷载下粉土动孔压方面的研究虽然很多,但多集中在50 kPa以上较高围压条件下进行的,对于海底管道等埋深较浅的低围压条件下的海洋工程适用性尚未知。埕北海域是我国油气开发的重点区域,该区海底输油管道常埋藏在0~5 m的浅地层中,且粉土为该区域的主要土质类型。因此,本文以埕北海域的粉土为研究材料,通过室内循环动三轴试验获得低围压下粉土的孔隙水压力动力响应特性,建立粉土的孔隙水发展模型。研究成果可服务于浅表层海洋工程建设。
1. 试验土样及方法
1.1 试样制备
本次试验用土均采自埕北海域,为了控制土体的物理力学性质,本次试验使用扰动样进行研究,扰动样的制备方法按照《土工试验规程(SL237-1999)》[25]中规定的方法进行。研究表明,粉土中的黏粒含量,对粉土的动孔压比有显著的影响。曾长女认为黏粒含量为3%~15% 时,粉土动孔压比先减小后增大,最低点为8%[26];而孟凡丽的研究认为转折点在12%[23],曹成林的试验则为9%[19]。因此,本试验配制了黏粒含量分别为8%、10%和12%的三种类型的粉土,它们的各粒径分布状况如表1及图1所示。
表 1 试验土样颗粒组成(%)Table 1. Particle composition of soil samples土样 2~1 mm 1~0.5 mm 0.5~0.25 mm 0.25~0.075 mm 0.075~0.005 mm <0.005 mm(黏粒) I类土 0 0 6.39 38.12 47.00 8.49 II类土 0 0 2.30 29.25 58.62 9.83 III类土 0 0 0 0.89 87.54 11.77 参考研究区典型土体的物理力学性质[27],本次试验所用土体的物理力学性质如表2所示。
表 2 土样基本物理性质Table 2. Physical properties of the soil samples土样类型 黏粒含量Mc/% 含水率ω/% 饱和密度ρ/(g/cm3) 干密度ρd/(g/cm3) 比重Gs 孔隙比e I类土 8 19.7 1.92 1.54 2.70 0.675 II类土 10 20.2 1.94 1.56 2.70 0.670 III类土 12 20.4 1.96 1.58 2.70 0.668 1.2 试验方法
本文的试验在中国海洋大学海底科学与探测技术教育部重点实验室进行,使用英国GDS公司生产的伺服电机控制的动三轴试验系统(DYNTTS)。
该仪器最大围压为1 MPa,最大振动频率为5 Hz,轴向最大位移100 mm,最大轴向力5 kN,动态轴压分辨率小于1 N,位移分辨率为0.2 μm,轴向力测量精度高于0.1%,轴向位移测量和控制精度为0.07%,并专配高精度孔压传感器,精度达到0.1%(量程为10 kPa)。与传统动三轴系统相比,该系统具有精度高、更稳定等优点,为开展低围压条件下粉土孔压模型研究提供了技术支持。
本次试验采用固结不排水振动三轴实验,将配土制成直径38 mm、高76 mm的重塑土样,然后利用反压饱和法,使试样孔隙压力系数B值达到0.95以上(饱和土的B值为1),确保土样充分饱和,然后采用均压固结将试样固结12 h,选择正弦式振动方式振动至土样破坏。孔隙压力系数B为在各向应力相等条件下的孔隙压力系数,它是土体在等向压缩应力状态时,单位围压增量所引起的孔隙压力增量。
2. 试验结果
2.1 孔压发展特征
国内外研究表明循环振动下粉土孔压发展规律较为一致,都是在振动初期孔压急剧上升,随着振动次数的增大孔压上升的速度也逐渐变缓,最后趋于稳定[28-29]。本文利用取自埕北海域的粉土样品,按埕北海域实际土体的情况配置了I、II、III三种不同黏粒含量的粉土土样,在不同的围压和振动条件下进行了多组模拟波浪荷载、管道振动等外在荷载的振动试验。不同实验条件下土样孔压数据表明,低围压条件下孔压发展曲线可以分成两种形态,具体呈现哪种形态由土样受到的轴向循环动应力和临界循环应力的大小决定。
图2为黏粒含量8%、10%、12%的I、II、III类粉土在有效围压30 kPa下的孔压发展模式。在轴向动应力小于临界循环应力时,三类粉土均表现出随循环振次的增加,孔压先急剧增大,后缓慢减小,最后趋于平缓的发展模式;而当轴向动应力大于临界循环应力时,三类粉土均表现出随循环振次的增加孔压先急剧增大,后缓慢增加,最后趋于平缓的发展模式,这种模式与张建民的A型曲线类似[30]。本试验中,40 kPa和50 kPa围压条件下粉土的动孔压发展曲线呈现出同样的特征。
2.2 低围压粉土动孔压发展模型拟合
由于孔隙水压力的发展对于土体变形和动强度有十分重要的影响,国内外学者对此进行了大量的研究,并提出了各种循环荷载下动孔压发展模型,总结起来主要有3类:第1类,将孔压与有效围压的比值和循环振次联系起来[31-34];第2类,将孔压与有效围压的比值和轴向应变联系起来 [35-38];第3类,将孔压与有效围压的比值和循环振次与破坏振次的比值联系起来[29-30,39]。
其中,第1类和第2类动孔压发展模型多应用于软黏土;第3类动孔压发展模型多用于砂土。对于粉质土体的孔压发展模型拟合研究较少,且存在较大的争议,仅有的几项研究也是在第3类孔压发展模型的基础上进行适当改进得到了粉土孔压发展模型。
本文借鉴前人研究成果,采用第3类动孔压发展模型,将孔压与有效围压的比值和循环振次与破坏振次的比值建立关系来进行低围压条件下粉土的孔压模型拟合。为使拟合曲线更加科学可靠,本文选择了同一种土在30、40和50 kPa三种不同的围压下的动孔压发展数据进行模型拟合。图3为黏粒含量8%的I类粉土、黏粒含量10%的II类粉土、黏粒含量12%的III类粉土的孔压模型曲线。图中横坐标为孔压与有效围压的比值μ/σ3,纵坐标为循环振次与破坏振次的比值N/Nf。
2.3 孔压影响因素
影响孔压发展的因素有很多,包括超固结比、循环振次、围压、振动频率和动应力等。本文主要选取了黏粒含量和振动频率两个主要影响粉土孔压发展的因素,通过孔压比与振次比之间的关系曲线来探讨低围压条件下黏粒含量和振动频率对孔压发展的影响。
本文将不同黏粒含量的粉土在相同实验条件下的孔压与围压的比值及振次与破坏振次的比值作图,图4是围压30、40、50 kPa条件下黏粒含量8%、10%和12%的粉土的孔压比与振次比关系曲线。将相同黏粒含量的粉土在不同振动频率条件下的孔压与围压的比值及振次与破坏振次的比值作图,图5为黏粒含量8%、10%和12%的粉土在振动频率0.1、0.2和0.5 Hz条件下的孔压比与振次比关系曲线。
3. 讨论
3.1 轴向动应力与临界循环应力对孔压发展趋势的影响
如图2所示,当轴向动应力小于临界循环应力时,曲线大致可分为2个阶段。第1阶段多为循环振次小于约60次的时间内,孔压随循环振次的增加快速上升达到峰值;第2阶段对应于循环振次大于60次,孔压随循环振次的增加缓慢下降,然后趋于稳定。这一孔压发展模式指示了土体在受到较小的轴向动应力时并不发生破坏,而是通过内部调整达到一个新的稳定状态,逐渐适应了这种振动的增密过程。
当轴向动应力大于临界循环应力时,曲线形态为经典孔压发展模式,大致也可分为3个阶段。第1阶段对应于循环振次30次以内,孔压随循环振次的增加急剧增大;第2阶段对应于循环振次30~60次,孔压随循环振次的增加缓慢上升,上升速率明显变缓;第3阶段对应于循环振次60次以上,孔压随循环振次的增加保持稳定,不再发生明显的变化。这一孔压发展模式指示了土体在受到较大的轴向动应力时,一方面,由于粉土的渗透系数较小,在振动初期,孔压不易消散或转移,导致土体内部水压分布不均匀,致使振动初始阶段孔压急剧上升;另一方面,由于粉土中少量的黏粒使粉土具有一定的结构强度和粘聚力,阻碍和限制孔压增大,致使后期不同粉粒含量粉土孔压发展均放缓[13-14]。
因此,在实际应用中可通过观察地基土孔压发展变化模式来预测地基土体的稳定性,从而达到预防地基土失稳的灾害的发生。建议在管道铺设选址时,除了考虑土体的临界循环应力,还应该测量管道周围可能产生的动应力,判断二者的相对大小,或在危险区布置孔压传感器实时监测孔压发展模式,防止地基土失稳情况的发生。
3.2 动孔压发展模型的影响因素
由图3可以看出,三种黏粒含量的粉土不同围压条件下的数据进行归一化处理之后大致落在较为集中的区域之内,拟合相关系数R2较高。对不同黏粒含量的粉土的动孔压发展模型进行拟合,结果如表3所示。
表 3 三类粉土的动孔压发展模型参数Table 3. Parameters of dynamic pore water pressure model for the three types of silt土样 黏粒含量% 函数表达式 R2 a b I类土 8 ln(N/Nf)=2.46*(μ/σ3)−2.77 0.94 2.46 −2.77 II类土 10 ln(N/Nf)=3.66*(μ/σ3)−3.90 0.88 3.66 −3.90 III类土 12 ln(N/Nf)=3.42*(μ/σ3)−2.76 0.89 3.42 –2.76 由上可看出,低围压条件下粉土动孔压发展模型可以用指数函数来进行拟合,一般表达式为:
$$ \ln\left(\frac{N}{{N}_{\rm{f}}}\right)=a*\left(\frac{\mu }{{\sigma }_{3}}\right)+b $$ 式中,N为循环振动次数;Nf为土体破坏时所对应的振动次数;μ为循环荷载下土体的动孔压;σ3为有效围压;a、b为与土性、实验条件有关的实验参数。
由上述的拟合公式可看出:低围压条件下,不同黏粒含量的粉土孔压发展模式基本相同,黏粒含量的不同不会改变孔压发展的趋势,但可能会影响公式中a、b两个实验参数,从而影响孔压增长的速度。因此,在实际生产中可通过拟合模型来预测孔压发展变化,从而达到预防地基土失稳的情况发生。
3.3 黏粒含量与振动频率对孔压发展的影响
由图4可看出,不同围压条件下,黏粒含量对粉土孔压发展的影响呈现出较为一致的规律:即黏粒含量为10%的粉土孔压在初始阶段上升最快,其次为8%的粉土,上升最慢的是黏粒含量为12%的粉土。由此可看出,低围压条件下,黏粒含量的加入对粉土孔压的发展有明显的影响,少量黏粒含量的加入可以使粉土的孔压发展速度增大,但存在一临界值,当超过这一临界值时,孔压发展的速度明显减缓。该临界值推测在10%~11%。
这可能是由于低围压条件下黏粒含量在粉土中扮演的角色由“润滑剂”转变为“胶结剂”[40-41]。当土体黏粒含量较少时,土体中的黏粒含量在粉土中扮演“润滑剂”的角色[26,42],相同动应力条件下易产生较大应变,使孔压快速累积,孔压发展速度较快;当黏粒含量大于某一临界值时,黏粒含量在粉土中的职能转变为“胶结剂”,增大了土体的结构强度和粘聚力,使土体对振动荷载的响应越来越不明显,孔压增长速度减缓[42-43]
由图5可看出,不同振动频率条件下,三种粉土的孔压发展呈现出较为相似的规律:即振动频率对粉土孔压发展有很大影响,振动频率0.5 Hz时,粉土的孔压发展最为迅速;其次为频率0.1 Hz振动条件下的粉土;振动频率为0.2 Hz的粉土孔压发展模式最为缓慢。由此可以看出,当振动频率为0.1~0.2 Hz时,振动频率的增大会使土体振动过程中孔压增长速度变慢;而当振动频率为0.2~0.5 Hz时,粉土孔压发展的增长速度又会随着振动频率的增大而增大。低围压条件下,振动频率对粉土孔压发展的影响存在一个临界值,本次研究发现该临界值为频率0.2 Hz左右,当振动频率小于该值时,粉土孔压增长速度随频率的增加而减缓;当振动频率大于该值时,粉土孔压增长的速度随频率的增加而增大。
其中的原因机理有待进一步研究,可能与粉土本身的结构有关,粉土本身的结构可抵抗一定频率的振动作用,表现为振动变密的状态,使得土体的孔压发展明显减缓;但当振动频率大于该频率时,土体本身的结构无法抵消该频率的振动,在该频率条件下加速了土体的破坏,使粉土孔压迅速增长。
4. 结论
(1)低围压条件下粉土孔压随振次的发展曲线呈现两种形态。在轴向动应力小于临界循环应力时,三类粉土均表现出随循环振次的增加,孔压先急剧增大,后缓慢减小,最后趋于平缓;而当轴向动应力大于临界循环应力时,三类粉土均表现出随循环振次的增加,孔压先急剧增大,后缓慢增加,最后趋于平缓。
(2)低围压条件下粉土孔压模型可以用函数来进行拟合,循环振次比以e为底的对数值是孔压比的一次函数,土的性质、黏粒含量和试验条件只会改变其斜率和截距,而不改变函数形式。
(3)低围压条件下,黏粒含量对粉土孔压的发展有一定影响,少量黏粒含量的加入通常可以使粉土的孔压发展速度增大。
(4)低围压条件下,振动频率对粉土孔压的发展有一定影响,振动频率对粉土孔压发展的影响存在一个临界值,本次研究发现该临界值为频率0.2 Hz左右,当振动频率小于该值时,粉土孔压增长速度随频率的增加而减缓;当振动频率大于该值时,粉土孔压增长的速度随频率的增加而增大。
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图 9 海山俯冲过程中的增生楔内部断裂演化的三阶段模式图
A: 海山与增生楔作用初始阶段,滑脱层沿海山顶面上移;B: 海山与增生楔持续作用,发生沿海底的远距离推覆作用;C: 海山俯冲后期,滑脱层下移并向前传播形成前缘逆冲断层系。
Figure 9. Three-stage model of faults evolution related to seamount subduction
A: The initial stage of seamount-accretionary wedge interaction, the detachment moves up along the top of seamount; B: Seamounts and accretionary wedges continue to interact, and long-distance, low-angle thrusting along the seafloor occurs; C: In the late stage of seamount subduction, the detachment moves down and propagates forward to form the frontal thrusts.
图 10 DEM数值模拟结果与希库朗伊俯冲带构造剖面对比
A: 05CM-04构造剖面图(修改自文献[17]),深度放大2倍, B: 海山俯冲DEM模拟的应变分布,C: 与海山俯冲相关构造解析模型。
Figure 10. Comparison between DEM simulation results and structural profile in Hikurangi subduction zone
A: Structural interpretation of seismic profile 05CM-04 (modified from reference[17]), B: strain derived from DEM simulation related to seamount subduction; C: structural model related to seamount subduction.
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