Methane migration and consumption in submarine mud volcanism and their impacts on marine carbon input
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摘要: 海底通过泥火山释放的富甲烷流体是海洋甚至大气重要的碳源之一，对该系统内甲烷迁移与转化过程开展研究，有助于精确估算其碳排放总量。系统调研了国内外文献，认识到泥火山的碳排放具有强烈的时、空变化特征。在时间上，甲烷的排放主要发生在泥火山的喷发期和平静期，而在其消亡之后只出现微量的渗漏；在空间上，一个单独的泥火山中心、翼部和外缘分别发育强甲烷气泡泄漏、中等强度富甲烷和溶解无机碳（DIC）的流体泄漏以及大面积的DIC微渗漏；甲烷厌氧氧化和碳酸盐岩沉淀作用在翼部最强，对碳排放的拦截最有效，而在中心和外缘均较慢。全球陆坡和深水盆地沉积物通过泥火山向上释放的深部来源的甲烷通量为0.02 Pg C·a−1，这些碳可能引发海水缺氧、酸化和影响海-气交换通量，从而在千年尺度甚至更短时间内影响海洋吸收大气二氧化碳的能力。将来需要进一步对海底泥火山的发育数目和喷发周期进行统计，对不同类型的泥火山开展精细调查，以准确评估沉积物中自下而上的碳排放对海洋碳循环的影响，完善全球碳循环模式。Abstract: Submarine mud volcanoes contribute carbon to the hydrosphere and the atmosphere by releasing methane-rich fluids, and researches on the temporal and spatial distribution of methane migration and chemical transportation at submarine mud volcanoes are the keys to understanding the processes mentioned above. In this paper, a large number of domestic and foreign literatures are systematically investigated, and the strong heterogeneity of methane leakage was recognized in the mud volcano systems. Methane emissions mainly occur during the eruption and dormant periods of mud volcanoes, and only a small amount of leakage occurs in extinct periods. In space, strong methane bubble leakages are usually developed around the centers of mud volcanos, and the chemical transportation efficiencies of methane are low in sediments; the leakages of methane and DIC controlled by fluid flow are mainly developed in the wings, where the rates of anaerobic oxidation of methane and the precipitation rate of authigenic carbonate are the highest. Shallow sediments have the strongest interception to carbon emission; both the intensity and the transportation rate of methane in the edge area are low, and hence a large area of DIC microleakage is developed. Globally, the carbon flux from submarine mud volcanos into shallow sediments is ca. 0.02 Pg C·a−1. The methane and DIC coming from sediments could cause seawater anoxia, acidification, and change air-sea carbon exchange fluxes, which may affect the ocean’s ability to absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide on millennium scale or even in a shorter time, and thus impacts on the global climate environment. In the future, accurate statistics on the number and eruption cycle of submarine mud volcanoes, and detailed investigations on the migration and transportation of methane in typical submarine mud volcanoes with different sizes and development stages, will be helpful to further accurately estimate their total carbon emissions, to study the impacts of bottom-up mud volcanoes’ carbon emissions on the marine carbon cycle, and to improve the marine carbon cycle model.
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Keywords:
- submarine mud volcanoes /
- submarine methane seepage /
- AOM /
- seep carbonates /
- marine carbon cycles
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图 1 海底泥火山的分布、地貌和构造图
a. 全球已发现的陆地和海底泥火山分布图[17]及表2中的海底泥火山 （红色星型），b. 尼罗河深海扇海底泥火山地形图[14]，c. 海底泥火山构造模型图[17]。
Figure 1. The distribution、topography and structure of submarine mud volcanoes
a. distribution of terrestrial and submarine mud volcanoes in the world[17], and submarine mud volcanoes （red star） in Table 2; b. bathymetric map of submarine mud volcano in the Nile deep sea fan[14]; c. Sketch map of mud volcano structure[17].
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图 3 哥斯达黎加岸外冷泉区5个沉积柱站位的甲烷释放速率和转化速率[45]
a. 孔隙水对流速率，b. 沉积物―水界面甲烷泄漏通量，c. AOM速率，d. 碳酸盐岩沉淀速率图。
Figure 3. The methane migration and consumption rates at five gravity core sites in cold seep area offshore Costa Rica[45]
a. pore water advection rates, b. methane fluxes at sediment-water interface, c. AOM rates, d. carbonate precipitation rates.
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图 4 海洋碳循环及海底冷泉活动对海洋碳循环的影响示意图
方括号内的数字表示碳库量，单位为Pg C，箭头旁边不带括号的数字表示年度通量，单位为Pg C·a−1。参考文献a-[67-68]; b-[64]; c-[60]; d-[22]; e-[69]。
Figure 4. schematic diagram of marine carbon cycle and the impact of sedimentary methane emissions on marine carbon cycle
the number in square brackets represents the carbon pool in Pg C, and the number without brackets next to the arrow represents annual flux in Pg C·a−1. References a-[67-68]; b-[64]; c-[60]; d-[22]; e-[69].
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表 1 巴伦支海Håkon Mosby泥火山中心到边缘不同生态分区的甲烷泄漏强度[15, 30-31]
Table 1 intensities of methane emission from the center to the edge of the Håkon Mosby Mud Volcanoin the Barents Sea[15, 30-31]
生态分区 面积/
m2对流速率/
（cm·a−1）深部甲烷泄漏 AOM 海底甲烷通量/
（106 mol·a−1）通量/
（mol·m-2·a−1）流量/
（106 mol·a−1）速率/
（mol·m−2·a−1）总速率/
（106 mol·a−1）效率/
%泥火山中心 300～600 高热流区 14 ＞182.5 2.6 1.8 0.04 1 2.6 次高热流区 101 22.3～28.5 2.6 1.1 0.1 4 2.4 气泡羽流 8～35 0 0 8～35 Beggiatoa 密集菌席 30 60～100 32.1 0.9 3.6 0.1 12 0.8 斑状菌席 55 0.6 0.07 12 0.5 灰色菌席 菌席 80 13.1 1 3.9 0.3 32 0.7 菌席附近 60 ＞102.2 6.2 6.2 管状虫 Siboglinid 410 40 8.4 3.3 7.6 3.1 93 0.2 合计 750 17.3aq+(8～35)g 3.8 22 13.5aq+(8～35)g 注：下标aq表示溶解态，g表示气态 
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表 2 不同海域海底泥火山的溶解态甲烷泄漏强度统计
Table 2 Statistics of the intensities of dissolved methane seepage from mud volcanoes in different sea areas
泥火山 面积/km2 流体对流速率/
（cm·a−1）深部来源甲烷流量/
（106 mol·a−1）AOM速率/
（106 mol·a−1）AOM效率/% 海底甲烷流量/
（106 mol·a−1）参考文献 黑海 Dvurechenskii泥火山 3 8～25 8.9 7 73～84 1.9 [11] Dvurechenskii泥火山 30～150 19～27 14 50～70 13 [33] 巴伦支海 Håkon Mosby泥火山 0.75 40～530 17.3 3.8 22 13.5 [15, 31] 巴巴多斯岸外 Atalante泥火山 10～150 6.5 [11] Cyclops泥火山 7～50 0.6 哥斯达黎加岸外 Mound 12 5 10 0.4 [34] Mound 11 - 5 0.07 Mound Culebra 5 - 0.6 格雷仕湾 Carlos Ribeiro 1.77 0.4～4 0.1 0.085 85 0.015 [35] Cap. Arutyunov 3.14 10～15 0.006 [36] Ginsburg泥火山 3 [16] Bonjardim泥火山 0.8 1.3
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