Tectonic structure and origin of the 85°E ridge, Northeastern Indian Ocean: A review and new observations
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摘要: 85°E海脊是东北印度洋一条重要的线性基底隆起，形成于中生代印度板块北漂过程中的构造和岩浆活动。海脊的结构、性质和起源蕴含了东印度洋扩张和印度板块北漂过程的关键信息，然而目前对其构造属性和形成演化的认识存在较大争议。分析了85°E海脊及邻区的重磁异常特征，结合前人对海脊外部形貌、内部结构、深部构造以及东印度洋板块重建的研究成果，探讨了海脊的性质和起源。结果表明，85°E海脊的形成是热点活动、洋脊扩张、转换断层、扩张中心跃迁以及板块汇聚远程效应等多种地质过程综合作用的结果。海脊呈现明显的构造分段性，不同分段的结构、性质和成因机制不同。12°N以北的海脊形成于板内热点型岩浆作用；2°～12°N的海脊与NW-SE向和N-S向两期海底扩张的边界高度吻合，是白垩纪东印度洋扩张中心调整和板块重组的产物；2°N以南的阿法纳西-尼基廷海山是随着海底扩张逐渐侵位的热点型海脊，可能与2°N以北的海脊不存在成因上的关联。分析认为，2°～12°N的海脊中段是未来部署地球物理测量、进一步确认海脊性质和成因的关键区域。通过深海钻探揭示海脊不同分段的物质组成和形成时代，是破解85°E海脊的性质和起源、白垩纪印度洋板块重建事件以及热点-洋中脊相互作用机制等重大地质问题的关键途径。Abstract: The 85°E ridge in the Northeast Indian Ocean is a prominent linear basement uplift, formed by the tectonic and magmatic activities during the Mesozoic northward drift of the Indian plate. This ridge is a key unit for understanding the East Indian Ocean spreading and the northward drifting of the Indian Plate. However, its structural characteristics and formation and evolution process are controversial. In this paper, gravity and magnetic anomalies around the 85°E ridge are mapped and analyzed. We discussed the nature and origin of the ridge upon integration of previous works on morphology and deep structure of the crust under the ridge and the reconstruction models of the East Indian Ocean plate. The results show that the 85°E ridge is generated by the integrated multiple processes including hot spot activity, spreading, transform fault, transition of spreading center and long-distance effect of plate convergence. Different segments are dominated by different structures, natures and genetic mechanisms. The segment north of 12°N was formed by intraplate hot spot magmatism. Between 2°N and 12°N the ridge is highly consistent with the boundary of NW-SE and N-S seafloor spreading, resulted from the Cretaceous plate reorganization. The Afanasy-Nikitin seamount to the south of 2°N is a near-axis hot spot trail emplaced along with the seafloor spreading, and may not be genetically related to the ridge to the north of 2°N. We suggest, therefore, that the middle part of the ridge between 2°N and 12°N is a critical area for further confirmation of the nature and origin of the ridge. Geophysical surveys are required and scientific drilling will help solve major geological problems, such as the nature and origin of the 85°E ridge, the reorganization of the Indian Ocean Plate in Cretaceous, and the interaction mechanism between hot spot and mid-ocean ridge.
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图 1 印度洋海底地形和构造单元简图 （地貌/构造单元名称据文献[34-35], 水深数据来源https://www.gebco.net/）
红色五星为热点，黑色实线为洋底年龄等值线（单位Ma），红色实线为扩张中心。地貌和构造单元缩写：AAB. 澳大利亚-南极海盆, ArB. 阿拉伯海盆, AgB. 厄加勒斯海盆, ANS. 阿法纳西-尼基廷海山, AP. 厄加勒斯海底高原, BF. 孟加拉扇, BR. 布罗肯海脊, CB. 克洛泽海盆,CHS. 克洛泽热点, CIB. 中印度洋盆地, CIR. 中印度洋中脊, CoHS. 康拉德热点, CoR. 康拉德海脊, CP. 克洛泽海底高原, CR. 卡尔斯伯格海岭, EB. 艾 朗浅滩, EnB. 恩德比海盆, GB. 加斯科因海盆, KHS. 凯尔盖朗热点, LCR. 拉克代夫-查戈斯海岭, MaP. 马达加斯加海底高原, MdB. 马达加斯加海盆, MoP. 莫桑比克海底高原, MsB. 马斯克林海盆, NB. 纳塔尔海盆, NER. 东经九十度海岭, NKP. 北凯尔盖朗海底高原, PB. 珀斯海盆,RHS. 留尼汪热点, RTJ. 罗德里格斯三联点, SAB. 南澳大利亚海盆, SB. 索马里海盆, SKP. 南凯尔盖朗海底高原, SMP. 塞舌尔-马斯克林海底高原, SEIR. 东南印度洋中脊, SWIR. 西南印度洋中脊, WB. 沃顿海盆。
Figure 1. Bathymetry of Indian Ocean and major topographic/tectonic features （Names of the features after references [34-35], bathymetric data from https://www.gebco.net/）
The red stars are hotspots. The black lines are isochrones of the seafloor（Unit: Ma）. The red lines are spreading centers. The black dashed rectangle outlines the area of Fig. 2. Abbreviations of topographic/ tectonic features are: AAB. Australian-Antarctic Basin, ArB. Arabian Basin, AgB. Agulhas basin, ANS.Afanasy- Nikitin Seamount, AP. Agulhas Plateau, BF. Bengal Fan, BR. Broken Ridge, CB. Crozet Basin, CHS. Crozet Hotspot, CIB. Central Indian Basin, CIR. Central Indian Ridge, CoHS. Conrad Hotspot, CoR. Conrad Ridge, CP. Crozet Plateau, CR. Carlsberg Ridge, EB. Elan Bank, EnB. Enderby Basin, GB. Gascoyne Basin, KHS. Kerguelen Hotspot, LCR. Laccadive-Chagos Ridge, MaP. Madagascar Plateau, MdB. Madagascar Basin, MoP. Mozambique Plateau, MsB. Mascarene Basin, NB. Natal Basin, NER. Ninety East Ridge, NKP. North Kerguelen Plateau, PB. Perth Basin, RHS. Reunion Hotspot, RTJ. Rodrigues Triple Junction, SAB. South Australian Basin, SB. Somalian Basin, SKP. South Kerguelen Plateau, SMP. Seychelles-Mascarene Plateau, SEIR. Southeast Indian Ridge, SWIR. Southwest Indian Ridge, WB. Wharton Basin.
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图 3 孟加拉湾空间重力异常图及解释（数据来源http://bgi.omp.obs-mip.fr/data）
S1-S5为海脊不同分段编号，红色虚线为转换断层，黑色点线圈定了85°E海脊的范围。
Figure 3. Free-air gravity anomaly map of the Bay of Bengal and some interpretations （gravity data from http://bgi.omp.obs-mip.fr/data）
S1 to S5 indicate the segments of the ridge. The red dashed lines are the transform faults. The black dotted line delineates the 85°E Ridge.
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图 4 孟加拉湾布格重力异常图及解释（数据来源http://bgi.omp.obs-mip.fr/data）
S1-S5为海脊不同分段编号，红色虚线为转换断层，黑色点线圈定了85°E海脊的范围。
Figure 4. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the Bay of Bengal and some interpretations （gravity data from http://bgi.omp.obs-mip.fr/data）
S1 to S5 indicate the segments of the ridge. The red dashed lines are the transform faults. The black dotted line delineates the 85°E Ridge.
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图 5 85°E海脊及邻区结晶地壳厚度图（a）及地壳结构剖面（b）
a. 底图为空间重力异常阴影图，红色实线为剖面位置，黑色点线为85°E海脊对应重力异常范围，地壳厚度据文献[30]；b. 黑色虚线为85°E海脊中轴。剖面来源：S2来源于文献[37]，15.3°N、11.4°N、10°N、9°N、8°N来源于文献[8]，MAN-01来源于文献[22]，MAN-03来源于文献[36]，1来源于文献[30]，S22-II-A、AS 10-02、RL-3来源于文献[38]。
Figure 5. 3-D crustal thickness （from acoustic basement to the Moho） of the 85°E ridge （a） and crustal structure profiles （b）
（a）The underlying map of the 3-D crustal thickness is the shaded free-air gravity map. The red solid lines show the locations of the profiles. The black dotted line delineates the 85°E Ridge. The 3-D crustal thickness is after reference [30].（b）The black dashed line indicates the axis of the ridge. Profiles are from: S2 from reference [37], 15.3°N、11.4°N、10°N、9°N、8°N from reference [8], MAN-01 from reference [22], MAN-03 from reference [36], 1 from reference [30], S22-II-A、AS 10-02、RL-3 from reference [38].
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图 7 SK72-13磁测剖面（据文献[24]修改） 和SK82-02磁测剖面 （据文献[43]修改） 磁异常条带对比结果
剖面位置见图6；注意：SK72-13剖面高值区和低值区的界线不是0 nT。
Figure 7. Comparison of SK72-13 and SK82-02 magnetic profiles with the synthetic models （SK72-13 after reference [24], SK82-02 after reference [43]）
Locations of the profiles are shown in Fig. 6. Note that the boundary of the high （yellow） and low （blue） anomalies on profile SK72-13 is not 0 nT.
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图 8 85°E海脊北段的地震反射特征
a. 地震剖面位置，底图为空间重力异常；b, c. 地震剖面及解释（据文献[49]）；d, e. 海脊内部反射结构及火山机构特征（据文献[9]）。
Figure 8. Seismic reflection profiles showing the basement morphology and internal structures of the 85°E Ridge
a. profile locations overlying on the free-air gravity anomaly map; b and c. seismic reflection profiles and some interpretations（after reference [49]）; d and e. internal structure of the volcanic edifice （after reference [9]）.
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图 10 白垩纪东印度洋形成演化过程重建 （据文献[44]）
黑色虚线表示断裂带；蓝色粗实线代表活动的扩张中心；黑色粗虚线表示消亡的扩张中心；灰色阴影部分代表85°E海脊对应的重力低异常；红色虚线代表白垩纪早期—中期海底扩张方向的趋势线；粉色线圈定的区域代表大火成岩省或微陆块；红色点代表凯尔盖朗热点的可能位置；数字表示文中的共轭海底扩张区域；绿色虚线代表M2时期洋中脊向北跃迁后残留的转换断层。B. 巴塔维亚海山，BR. 布罗肯海岭，CKP. 中凯尔盖朗海底高原，CR. 康拉德隆起，EB. 艾朗海底高原，K-86°FZ. 凯尔盖朗—86°E断裂带，R. 拉贾马尔块体，S. 锡尔赫特块体，SKP. 南凯尔盖朗海底高原，SL. 斯里兰卡，WZFZ. 瓦拉比—泽尼斯断裂带，Z. 泽尼斯海底高原。
Figure 10. Plate reconstruction models for Eastern Indian Ocean during Cretaceous （after reference [44]）
Fracture zones are shown as thin black dashed lines. The active spreading ridge is shown as a thick blue line. Thick black dashed lines denote the extinct spreading ridges. The gravity low of the subsurface 85°E Ridge is shown in gray shade. Color shades as per legend denotes the ages of the underlying oceanic crust. The dashed red lines denote synthetic flow lines that border the inferred spreading corridors/zones and are drawn to understand the evolution of the Early to Middle Cretaceous crust. Large Igneous Provinces and inferred continental slivers are outlined in pink. Red circle denotes the probable location of the Kerguelen hotspot. The numbers represent conjugate spreading corridors. Green dashed lines mark the remnants of the transform fault along which the northward ridge jump took place at around M2 time. B. Batavia knoll, BR. Broken Ridge, CKP. Central Kerguelen Plateau, CR. Conrad Rise, EB. Elan Bank, K-86° FZ. Kerguelen-86°E Fracture Zone, R. Rajmahal Traps, S. Sylhet Traps, SKP. Southern Kerguelen Plateau, SL. SriLanka, WZFZ. Wallaby-Zenith Fracture Zone, Z. Zenith Plateau.
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