Interaction between hydrosphere and lithosphere in subduction zones
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摘要: 俯冲带系统是研究地球水圈-岩石圈相互作用的天然实验室。俯冲板片所携带的水进入俯冲带系统，显著影响俯冲板片上地幔蛇纹石化程度、岛弧岩浆活动以及俯冲带地震机制等构造动力学过程。沿着环太平洋俯冲带，由主动源地震探测得到的板片含水量结果可以很好地解释区域相关地震观测，同时由被动源地震探测到的上地幔低速异常区域都与俯冲板片断层发育区相一致。多道反射地震探测与数值模拟都揭示了俯冲板块正断层广泛存在，可穿透莫霍面，深度可达海底下至少20 km。俯冲板块正断层为流体进入地壳与上地幔提供了重要通道，导致上地幔蛇纹石化程度达到1.4%，甚至更高。在洋壳俯冲过程中，随着温压增加，在不同深度脱水形成不同性质流体与地幔反应。通过俯冲带流体包裹体和交代成因矿物等的研究发现水岩相互作用广泛存在。本文旨在回顾俯冲板片含水量探测及水岩相互作用研究，简述近年来取得的重要进展以及对将来相关研究的启示。Abstract: The Subduction system is a natural laboratory to investigate the interaction between the Earth’s hydrosphere and lithosphere. Water carried in by down-going slabs significantly affects the tectono-dynamic processes in the subduction zones, for examples the mantle serpentinization of the subducting slab, formation of magmas and active volcanic arcs, and the seismogenic behaviors of the subduction zone. Along the circum-Pacific subduction zones, the regional seismic phenomena can be well explained by the water content estimated from active source seismic experiments, and the low-velocity anomalies of the upper mantle detected by passive source seismic surveys are consistent with the fault development on the subduction slabs. Both the multichannel seismic reflection exploration and numerical simulation reveal that normal faults exist widely on subduction slabs, which may penetrate the Moho and reach a depth as deep as 20 km at least below the seafloor. Those normal faults can provide channels for fluid to enter the crust and upper mantle, resulting in serpentinization up to 1.4 wt% or even higher of the upper mantle. As the temperature and pressure increase during the subduction process, fluids with different characters may be released from dehydration and interact with the mantle at different depths. The water-rock interaction exists extensively at subduction zones as revealed by studies of fluid inclusions and metasomatic minerals. This paper highlights the recent research progress on water content detection and water-rock interaction of subduction slabs and discusses implications for future researches on hydrosphere-lithosphere interaction.
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天然气水合物是在低温、高压条件下，甲烷等气体与水作用形成的笼形晶体化合物[1]，分布广、储量大、能量密度高，是最为重要的替代能源之一。我国陆地和海洋中的水合物资源相当丰富[2-3]。根据地质构造和储层条件，水合物藏可分为4类（Ⅰ—Ⅳ类）[4-5]。如图1所示，其中，Ⅱ类水合物藏由水合物层和下伏水层组成，顶底为非渗透层。从地质学、地球化学及热力学等角度分析，Ⅱ类水合物藏是分布最为广泛的一种类型，最有希望得到大规模开发利用[6]。
从经济和技术角度看，降压法[8]和热激法[9]是实际水合物藏开采最为可行的方式，常用于现场的开采试验[10-14]。但与常规油气藏不同，水合物藏在开采过程中会发生相变，即固态的水合物吸热分解为可动流体（气和水），单一的降压法或热激法的作用效果往往十分有限。Moridis等[15]研究了定流量抽取地层水，以实现Ⅱ类水合物藏储层降压的方法，但产气效果并不理想。Gao等[16]开展的降压分解实验也表明，在单纯降压条件下，Ⅱ类水合物岩心的生产指标欠佳。杨圣文[17]研究了定井底流压结合井筒加热进行Ⅱ类水合物藏开采的方法，分析了不同井底流压下的开采效果，结果表明，降低井底流压能改善水合物藏的开采效果。Moridis等[18]提出了单井条件下，分阶段进行井筒加热和注热水开采Ⅱ类水合物藏的方法，但施工程序较为复杂，实际应用存在一定困难。Reagan等[19]对Moridis等提出的方法进行了敏感性分析，结果表明孔隙度、储层非均质性等对开采效果有明显影响。
实验研究[20]和数值模拟研究[21]都表明，热水驱替法能够结合降压法和热激法的优点，是水合物藏开采的一种有效方法。对Ⅱ类水合物藏而言，将热水驱替和井组[22]结合具有明显优势。鉴于Ⅱ类水合物藏分布的广泛性，且相关开采模拟仍有待加强，本文结合实际水合物藏参数，使用数值模拟方法研究了热水驱替方式下Ⅱ类水合物藏的开采规律，并与降压法的开采效果进行了对比，以加强对水合物资源开发利用的认识。
1. 研究方法
1.1 开采方法
采用五点井网，热水驱替开采Ⅱ类水合物藏的示意图如图2所示。由于水合物层的渗透率很低、注入性较差，中心注入井在下伏水层的上部区域射孔，向储层注入热水；4口生产井定井底流压生产。在生产过程中，生产井近井地带的低压环境和注入井持续的热水注入使得储层中的水合物大量分解，分解得到的气体运移至生产井采出。
1.2 数值模拟方法
由于水合物藏开采试验不多，数值模拟是目前研究水合物藏开采动态规律的主要手段。HydrateResSim（HRS）是专门用于水合物藏开采的开源学术代码[23]，它考虑了水合物藏开采过程中的相变、传热、多相渗流等机理，能够对降压法、热激法等方式下的水合物藏开采进行有效模拟[24]。在HRS中，相变过程采用主变量变换法处理，数学模型的离散采用积分有限差分法，离散得到的非线性方程组使用Newton-Raphson方法迭代求解。
本文在HRS基础上开展模拟研究，研究的水合物假设为单一的甲烷水合物，体系考虑4相3组分，相包括气相（G）、水相（A）、水合物相（H）和冰相（I），这4相均为储层孔隙中的一部分。其中冰相和水合物相为不可流动相，水相与气相为可流动相，其流动遵循达西定律。组分包括甲烷组分（m）、水组分（w）和水合物组分（由甲烷组分和水组分根据水合数表示，本文水合数取值为6）。其中，水相、气相和水合物相中都存在水组分和甲烷组分，冰相中只存在水组分。
组分κ的质量守恒方程如式（1）所示：
$$\frac{\partial }{{\partial t}}\left(\sum\limits_{\beta = A,G,H,I} {\varphi {S_\beta }{\rho _\beta }X_\beta ^\kappa } \right) + \nabla \cdot \left(\sum\limits_{\beta = A,G} {X_\beta ^\kappa {{\vec F}_\beta }}\right) = {q^\kappa }$$ (1) 式中，φ为储层孔隙度；Sβ为相β（=G, A, I, H）的饱和度；ρβ为相β的密度，kg·m−3；
$X_\beta ^\kappa $ 为组分κ（=m, w）在相β中的质量分数；${\vec F_\beta }$ 为相β的质量流速，kg·m−2·s−1；qκ为组分κ的源汇项，kg·m−3·s−1。体系的能量守恒方程如式（2）所示：
$$\begin{split}&\frac{\partial }{{\partial t}}\left( {(1 - \varphi ){\rho _R}{C_R}T + \sum\limits_{\beta = A,G,H,I} {\varphi {S_\beta }{\rho _\beta }{H_\beta }} + {H_d}} \right) + \nabla \cdot \\ & \left\{ { - \left( {(1 - \varphi ){K_R} + \sum\limits_{\beta = A,G,H,I} {\varphi {S_\beta }{K_\beta })} } \right)\nabla T + \sum\limits_{\beta = A,G} {{H_\beta }{{\vec F}_\beta }} } \right\} = {q^e}\end{split}$$ (2) 式中，ρR为岩石的密度，kg·m−3；CR为岩石的比热容，J·kg−1·K−1；Hβ为相β的焓，J·kg−1；Hd为水合物的形成/分解焓，J·m−3；KR为岩石的导热系数，W·m−1·K−1；Kβ为相β的导热系数，W·m−1·K−1；qe为热量的源汇项，J·m−3·s−1。
模拟研究时，采用平衡模型描述水合物的分解与形成，采用的相对渗透率模型[23]和毛管力模型[23]分别如式（3）、式（4）所示：
$${k_{rA}} = \min \left\{ {{{\left[ {\frac{{{S_A} - {S_{irA}}}}{{1 - {S_{irA}}}}} \right]}^{{n_A}}},1} \right\}$$ $$\begin{aligned}{k_{rG}} = \min \left\{ {{{\left[ {\frac{{{S_G} - {S_{irG}}}}{{1 - {S_{irA}}}}} \right]}^{{n_G}}},1} \right\}\end{aligned}$$ (3) 式中，krA为水相相对渗透率；SA为水相饱和度；SirA为束缚水饱和度；nA为水相相对渗透率递减指数，本文取3.572[25]；krG为气相相对渗透率；SG为气相饱和度；SirG为束缚气饱和度；nG为气相相对渗透率递减指数，本文取3.572[25]。
$${p_c} = - {p_{c0}}{\left[ {{{\left( {\frac{{{S_A} - {S_{irA}}}}{{1 - {S_{irA}}}}} \right)}^{ - 1/\lambda }} - 1} \right]^{1 - \lambda }}$$ (4) 式中，pc为气水间毛管力，Pa；pc0为模型参数，本文取2×103 Pa[25]；λ为模型参数，本文取0.45[25]。
2. 研究实例
2.1 数值模拟模型
参考Mallik地区Ⅱ类水合物藏的参数[26]建立基础模型（如图3所示。模型大小为165 m×165 m×90 m，从上到下，依次由顶部非渗透层、水合物层、下伏水层和底部非渗透层组成。采用直角网格系统，x，y，z方向对应的网格数分别为33×33×22。模型参数如表1所示。采用五点井网热水驱替方式进行模拟研究，生产时间为3年。其中，注入井和生产井的井径均为0.1 m。各生产井的射孔范围为[−1 m，15 m]，以3 MPa进行定井底流压生产；注入井的射孔范围为[−1 m，0 m]，以200 t/d的速度注入50 ℃的热水。
表 1 基础模型参数Table 1. Basic model parameters of the Class Ⅱ hydrate reservoir参数 水合物层 下伏水层 顶底非渗透层 厚度/m 15 15 30 绝对渗透率/10−3 μm2 1 000 1 000 0 孔隙度 0.35 0.35 0 水合物饱和度 0.7 0 − 含水饱和度 0.3 1 − 底部初始压力/MPa 10.67 − − 底部初始温度/℃ 13.3 − − 温度梯度/（℃/100 m） 3.0 束缚水饱和度 0.20 − 束缚气饱和度 0.02 − 由于相变的存在，水合物在开采过程中会与周围环境进行大量的热交换，热效应显著。而水合物藏的顶底非渗透层虽然几乎没有渗透性，但通常赋存着大量热量，在开采过程中能够以热传导的方式为水合物的分解提供能量[27]，因而对水合物藏的开采效果有直接影响。在本文的模型中，顶底非渗透层均为30 m，这个厚度足以刻画开采过程中的热效应[28]。
2.2 开采规律
2.2.1 产气动态
产气速率和累产气、分解气速率和累分解气曲线分别如图4和图5所示。从图4可以看出，产气速率可大致分为两个阶段（阶段①和阶段②），呈现先快速上升，然后以较快速度下降至趋于相对稳定的变化规律。在阶段①，经50 d达到峰值产气速率约为7.0×104 m3/d。在阶段②，产气速率先以较快速度降低，然后逐渐趋于稳定，在生产末期，产气速率约为5×103 m3/d。分解气速率的变化与产气速率变化相同（图5）。对应产气速率和分解气速率的变化，累产气和累分解气前期快速上升，而后近似线性增加。截至生产结束，累产气1.31×107 m3，累分解气1.33×107 m3。除极少量溶于地层水中的气体外，Ⅱ类水合藏中的采出气全部来源于水合物的分解，因此，分解气几乎被全部采出（＞99%），地层中的残余极少。
出现上述变化的原因主要是：在阶段①，由于定压生产以及水层中水的产出，储层压力下降较快，生产井近井地带的水合物快速分解。同时，热水的注入也导致储层水合物的大量分解，但产出的气体主要来自生产井近井地带水合物的分解。在阶段②，随生产时间的增加，在生产井的降压作用和注入井的热水作用（图6）下，水合物持续分解，但由于水合物饱和度持续下降，总体产气速率逐渐降低。
储层温度场的变化如图6所示（剖面图）。可以看出，随生产时间的增加，水合物的分解导致温度降低，模型的温度整体呈逐渐下降趋势，但注入井近井地带由于热水的注入，高温区域不断扩大，能够持续为水合物的分解提供能量。
2.2.2 水合物饱和度
模型水合物饱和度场的变化如图7所示（剖面图）。可以看出，随生产时间的增加，在生产井的降压作用和注入井的热水作用下，生产井周围、水合物层与下伏水层接触面、注入井周围的水合物饱和度逐渐降低；至生产末期，相当一部分水合物已经分解，剩余的水合物主要存在于井间地带。顶部非渗透层携带的热量也促进了水合物的分解，因而水合物层顶部（即顶部非渗透层与水合物层的交界处）的水合物分解明显。当生产结束时，水合物层的平均水合物饱和度降至0.176。
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图 7 水合物饱和度场注：为展示水合物层水合物饱和度的变化，示意图中只显示了部分网格。Figure 7. Hydrate saturation field evolution2.3 开采效果对比
鉴于降压法在水合物藏开采方法中具有重要地位，为对比热水驱替开采水合物藏的效果，建立了降压法开采的对比模型。在降压法开采模型中，将中心注入井关闭，生产井以定井底流压方式生产（3 MPa），其他储层参数及生产参数不变。
在热水驱替和降压开采条件下，水合物藏的气体采出程度、水合物分解程度及累积气水比如图8所示。其中，气体采出程度为采出气量与气体总储量的比值，如式（5）所示：
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图 8 气体采出程度、水合物分解程度和累积气水比Figure 8. Gas recovery percent, hydrate dissociation percent and gas-water ratio$$\eta = \frac{{{N_G}}}{{{R_G}}}$$ (5) 式中，η为气体采出程度；NG为采出的甲烷量，m3；RG为水合物藏中甲烷初始总储量（包括水相中的溶解气以及水合物中蕴藏的甲烷总量），m3。
水合物分解程度为分解的水合物量与水合物总储量的比值，如式（6）所示：
$$\beta = \frac{{{D_H}}}{{{R_H}}}$$ (6) 式中，β为水合物分解程度；DH为分解的水合物量，kg；RH为水合物藏中的水合物总储量，kg。
累积气水比为累积产气量与累积产水量的比值，如式（7）所示：
$$r = \frac{{{V_G}}}{{{m_A}}}$$ (7) 式中，r为累积气水比；VG为累积产气量，m3；mA为累积产水量，t。
从图8可以看出，截至生产结束，相对于降压法，热水驱替的气体采出程度和水合物分解程度更高（分别高出约40%和24%），且热水驱替条件下的气体采出程度和水合物分解程度均大于60%，处于较高水平。两种模型的差异来源于外源热水的注入。相对于降压模型，热水驱替模型中热水的注入扩大了水合物的分解范围，携带的热量提高了水合物的分解程度，相应地气体采出程度也较高；在降压和热水的综合作用下，开采指标优于降压模型。因此，热水驱替对Ⅱ类水合物藏的开采具有一定的适应性，开采指标较好。但热水驱替的产水量较高，其累积气水比仅为降压开采的1/3，这是由外源热水的注入导致的不可避免的结果，因而开采过程中的水处理是十分重要的问题。
3. 结论
（1）热水驱替开采Ⅱ类水合物藏时，水合物藏的产气速率和分解气速率首先快速上升，然后以较快速度下降至趋于相对稳定；累产气和累分解气先快速上升，然后近似线性增加。气体采出程度和水合物分解程度处于较高水平（＞60%）。
（2）热水驱替对Ⅱ类水合物藏的开采具有一定的适应性。相对于降压开采，在热水驱替条件下，水合物藏的气体采出程度更高，水合物饱和度的降低更显著；但累积气水比较低，伴随较大的产水量。
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图 1 俯冲带水循环简易示意图
俯冲板片脱水分为浅部（＜20 km，沉积层脱水）、中部（20～100 km，沉积层和地壳脱水）、深部（＞100 km，壳幔去蛇纹石化脱水导致岛弧岩浆活动）三个阶段，部分水会进入地球更深部进行循环
Figure 1. Schematic model of water cycle in a subduction zone
Slab dehydration or fluid release can be classified into three depth ranges: Shallow (＜20 km) from subducting sediments, intermediate (20～100 km) from sediments and oceanic crust, and deep (＞100 km) from oceanic crust and mantle deserpentinization which triggers arc melting. Some fraction of the initial water content of the subducting plate is retained and recycled to greater depths in the mantle
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图 3 俯冲带岩石圈构造和变质单元概念模型（修改自文献[8]）
黑点表示俯冲板片水化作用，蓝色和红色弯曲箭头分别表示脱水和岩浆作用
Figure 3. Conceptual model of the tectonic structure and metamorphic evolution of a subducting lithosphere (modified from ref.[8])
Black dots shown in the subduction slab indicate hydration, blue and red arrows represent dehydration and magmatism, respectively
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图 4 全球不同构造背景橄榄岩和辉石岩水含量柱状图（修改自文献[33]）
地幔楔辉石岩及单斜辉石和石榴石的水含量高于克拉通、非克拉通及大洋岩石圈橄榄岩或辉石岩的水含量，表明俯冲板片脱水衍生的熔/流体将水向地幔迁移
Figure 4. Histograms of water content of peridotite and pyroxenite from different tectonic settings (modified from ref.[33])
The water content of pyroxenite, clinopyroxene, and garnet from the mantle wedge is higher than that of craton, non-craton and oceanic lithospheric, indicating that the dehydration-derived melt/fluid from subduction plate transports water to the mantle
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图 5 环太平洋俯冲带地震探测俯冲板片含水量研究
红圈表示地震探测俯冲板片沉积层、地壳、地幔，孔隙水和结构水；篮圈表示仅有探测地壳或上地幔结构水
Figure 5. Seismic detection of water content at the subduction zones around the Pacific
Red circles indicate seismic detection of water contents of the sedimentary, crust, mantle, porosity and structural water of the subducting plate; Blue circles represent regions where only structural water in the crustal or upper mantle was seismically detected
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图 6 地震速度到岩性组合再到含水量的转换关系示意图
a. 俯冲带岩石的纵横波速示意图，圆点表示各向同性情况，虚线区域显示各向异性情况下的Vp-Vs区间（修改自文献[12]）；b. 下地壳蚀变矿物组合及其含水量随温度的变化的关系图（修改自文献[38]）
Figure 6. Transformation relationship between seismic velocity, lithological association and water content
a. Compressional (Vp) and shear (Vs) wave velocities in a subduction zone and crustal rocks, Circles indicate isotropic case, areas in dashed curves show Vp-Vs dispersion of anisotropic case (modified from ref.[12]); b. Alteration mineral assemblages (left axis) in the lower crust and their water content (green line, right axis) as a function of temperature (modified from ref.[38])
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图 7 西太平洋俯冲板片正断层模拟与地震观测对比（修改自文献[17]）
虚线指示模拟得到的理论断裂区最大深度，彩色底图为偏应力分布（红色为拉张应力，蓝色为挤压应力），黑色圆圈为实际观测到的地震分布
Figure 7. Comparison of simulated and seismically detected faults at western Pacific subduction slabs (modified from ref.[17])
Dashed lines indicate the maximum penetration depth of the simulated faults; the colored background show the deviatoric stresses with extension in red and compression in blue; black circles present the observed earthquake epicenters
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图 9 俯冲工厂废弃物的同位素组成（修改自文献[14]）
DMM：亏损的洋中脊地幔；HIMU：高μ地幔；EMI：I型富集地幔；EMII：II型富集地幔；MORB：洋中脊玄武岩；PM：原始地幔。俯冲工厂废弃物再循环和原始地幔的综合贡献可以解释深部地幔储层的演化过程
Figure 9. Isotopic compositions of depleted materials from the subduction factory (modified from ref.[14])
DMM: depleted mid-ocean ridge basalt mantle, HIMU: high-μ mantle, EMI: enriched mantle type I, EMII: enriched mantle type II, MORB: mid-ocean ridge basalt, PM: primitive mantle. Evolution of deep mantle reservoirs may be comprehensively explained by contribution of recycled waste materials from the subduction factory and primitive mantle
表 1 大洋俯冲带地震探测俯冲板片含水量研究统计
Table 1 Water content of subduction slabs detected from seismic surveys
% 俯冲带位置
（年龄/Ma）沉积层 上地壳（2A 层） 上地壳（2B 层） 下地壳 上地幔 孔隙水 结构水 孔隙水 结构水 孔隙水 结构水 孔隙水 结构水 孔隙水 结构水 钻孔和全球平均值 5 2 2 1 卡斯凯迪亚（8） 30 9.2 4.6 2.6 1.1 1.8 0.2 0.8 卡斯凯迪亚（45°50′～47°45′N）（8） − − 3.2 ± 0.4 1.7 ± 0.2 2.4 ± 0.4 0.27 ± 0.05 0.06 ± 0.03 0.008 ± 0.002 0.05 ± 0.03 0.022 ± 0.005[1]
0.036 ± 0.009[2]
0.33 ± 0.15[3]卡斯凯迪亚（44°20′～45°50′N）（9） 4.1 ± 1.8 − 2.8 ± 0.4 1.9 ± 0.2 2.3 ± 0.4 0.28 ± 0.05 0.12 ± 0.03 0.005 ± 0.001 0.08 ± 0.04 0.017 ± 0.006[1]
0.03 ± 0.01[2]
0.6 ± 0.3[3]中智利南部（13） − − − − − − − − 1.9 冲绳海槽西部（20） − − − − − − − − 0[4] 中美洲（哥斯达黎加）（19～22.5） − − − − − − − ＜1 1～2 中美洲（尼瓜拉瓜）（24） − − 5.0 − 1.7 − 0.6 1 3.5＜2.5 中马里亚纳海沟（150） 2.0 中智利（26～30） − − − − − − − − 2.2 中智利北部（40） − − − − − − − − 1.9 智利北部（50） − − − − − − − − 2.5 阿拉斯加（舒马金）（50～55） − − − − − − − − 1.8 阿拉斯加（萨米迪）（50～55） − − − − − − − − ＜1.8 汤加（80） − − − − − − − − 2.7 千叶（130） − − − − − − − − 2.5 日本北部（135） − − − − − − − − 1～2 注：[1]滑石+绿泥石+角闪石组合；[2]蛇纹石+绿泥石+角闪石组合；[3]蛇纹石+绿泥石+角闪石组合，假设无孔隙水存在于地幔中；[4]基于缺乏可分辨的地幔速度异常结果推算。 
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